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Carroll Baker – More Than a Sex Symbol of the Silver Screen

Posted on December 8, 2025 by ahcadmin

With her large blue eyes and lithe figure, Carroll Baker was a Hollywood sensation. Papers of the day described her as “a little like Marilyn Monroe, a little like Jean Harlow, and altogether a platinum blonde.” She earned millions from her appearances in dozens of movies. Directors, including George Stevens and John Ford, praised her skill as an actress. Yet behind the glamour was a determined artist who fought to be seen for her talent rather than her looks.

Carroll Baker strikes a glamorous pose disembarking from a train in France. Box 8, Carroll Baker papers, Collection No. 5474, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Baker came from humble beginnings. She was born in Pennsylvania coal country in 1931. Her childhood was unsettled. The family moved often while her father tried to make a living as a traveling salesman. Her parents fought and eventually divorced. Movie theaters offered a welcome form of escape. As a young girl, Baker idolized Shirley Temple and tried out for school plays but never won a role.

Baker left home at seventeen to pursue a career as a dancer. Before long she was an assistant to The Great Volta, a touring magician. At eighteen she married a New York furrier and real estate mogul 34 years her senior. The marriage lasted eight months and Baker traveled to Mexico to get a divorce. The brief marriage left Baker wiser and more independent—ready to chase her dream on her own terms.

On her return to New York City, she decided to pursue a career as an actress. She auditioned for the Actors Studio, determined to study method acting. There she met Jack Garfein, whom she married in 1955. Garfein was a stage and film director, who had come to the United States as a teenaged orphan, having been the only member of his Czechoslovak-Jewish family to survive Nazi concentration camps. Newlyweds Garfein and Baker were poor but happy, living in a one room New York City apartment and eating canned spaghetti for dinner.

Baker’s ascent to Hollywood stardom began when she was cast as Elizabeth Taylor’s and Rock Hudson’s daughter in the 1956 film Giant. Warner Brothers was so impressed with her performance that they signed her to a seven-year contract. That led her to the leading role in the 1956 film Baby Doll based on two one-act plays written by Tennessee Williams.

Baby Doll was a violent and disturbing film. Baker played the title character, Baby Doll, a nineteen-year-old girl who, though married, sleeps in a crib, sucks her thumb, and plays with dolls. It garnered Baker an Oscar nomination, but it was also given a condemned rating by the Catholic National Legion of Decency. They called the movie “salacious” and full of “carnal suggestiveness.”

In this scene from Baby Doll, Carroll Baker runs to find her on-screen husband. — In this scene from *Baby Doll*, Carroll Baker runs to find her on-screen husband. Box 32, Carroll Baker papers, Collection No. 5474, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

In New York, partly because of the notoriety, Baby Doll was a box office sellout. But in Memphis and Atlanta the movie was banned. Baker was appalled that her part “caused so much hoopla.” She hid from photographers, who badgered her to pose sucking her thumb. She dyed her hair black and began wearing dark clothes to make herself inconspicuous. Meanwhile, critics called her a female James Dean and touted her as the star discovery of the year.

Warner Brothers proceeded to offer her parts that were reminiscent of Baby Doll, but Baker didn’t want to be typecast, so she took out a loan and bought out her studio contract for $250,000. After the success of Baby Doll, Baker was careful about which directors she worked with. She held out for scripts with artistic merit. Following Baby Doll, Baker appeared in The Big Country and in a Clark Gable comedy But Not for Me. It was a particularly sweet success as Baker had long admired Clark Gable.

Baker traveled to Europe on vacation in 1960. While she was there, an Italian photographer asked her to pose in a bikini. Baker demurred – she was a professional actress, not a sex symbol. But the photographer was persistent. Baker ended up on the front cover of magazines across Italy. The experience led her to conclude that, like Sophia Loren, she could be a serious actress with sex appeal.

Then in 1961, she and husband Garfein teamed up on Something Wild. It was another film with dark themes. Garfein wrote the script and directed. Baker played a girl living alone in a New York slum. The movie opens with a brutal sexual assault. Critics called it “a complex exploration of the physical and emotional effects of trauma.” Baker prepared for her role by renting a tiny room in a boarding house and hiring on as a salesgirl in a dime store. The film received critical reviews in the U.S. but was better received in Europe.

Carroll Baker and Jack Garfein on the set of Something Wild. — Carroll Baker and Jack Garfein on the set of *Something Wild*. Box 36, Carroll Baker papers, Collection No. 5474, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Garfein and Baker’s collaboration wasn’t limited to film. They also had two children, Blanche and Herschel.

Carroll Baker, Jack Garfein, and their children Blanche and Herschel pose for a photo outside their Beverly Hills home. — Carroll Baker, Jack Garfein, and their children Blanche and Herschel pose for a photo outside their Beverly Hills home, 1965. Box 46, Carroll Baker papers, Collection No. 5474, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

In 1962 Baker was cast in the Broadway show Come On Strong but the production flopped. A review described Baker: “A slender blond beauty with a springtime freshness of a true romantic heroine, she can whip a comic line across the stage like a hand grenade, make love with ardor and grace, turn abruptly without a false move from one mood to the next, make you love her, hate her and, time and again, weep for her. What an extraordinary talent!”

Then came How the West Was Won, an epic Western with a star-studded cast. Baker played the role of pioneer Eve Prescott Rawlings and proved herself, once again, a worthy actress. For the 1964 film The Carpetbaggers, Baker played the sultry Rina Marlowe, loosely based on the actress Jean Harlow. The press called it “the most daring and sexy film ever to come out of Hollywood!” Garfein was pragmatic about Baker’s on-screen romances saying, “As long as she acts well, I like it.” Baker said she “enjoyed filming love scenes – letting her instincts go.”

George Peppard, playing Jonas Cord, Jr, and Carroll Baker, playing Rina Marlowe, in a publicity photo for the film The Carpetbaggers, 1963. — George Peppard, playing Jonas Cord, Jr, and Carroll Baker, playing Rina Marlowe, in a publicity photo for the film *The Carpetbaggers*, 1963. Box 46, Carroll Baker papers, Collection No. 5474, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Also in 1964, Baker traveled to Kenya to film Mister Moses. Her face was frequently splashed across the cover of popular magazines like Life and Look. That same year she appeared in Cheyenne Autumn, the last Western directed by John Ford. In what was another departure from her bombshell roles, Baker played a Quaker school teacher.

Carroll Baker at the international Press Premiere of the film Cheyenne Autumn at the Lincoln Theater in Cheyenne, Wyoming, 1964. — Carroll Baker at the international Press Premiere of the film *Cheyenne Autumn* at the Lincoln Theater in Cheyenne, Wyoming, 1964. Box 10, Carroll Baker papers, Collection No. 5474, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Baker spoke of working terribly hard, saying “the kind of excitement we try to create for a motion picture, the way we go out of our way to make personal appearances, is a lot harder for us that it is for the men; first of all because we have a very short career span, and secondly because it takes us hours longer to get ready, fix our hair, makeup and so forth.” But Baker also wrote, “I have most of the blessings that eluded Marilyn Monroe and Jean Harlow – children, a good husband, a secure home – and now I am financially secure, too.”

In 1965, Baker was cast in the role of Jean Harlow in a biopic titled Harlow. By then, reviewers were calling Baker the “sex queen of the Sixties.” In an interview, Garfein said, “Carroll is cast most successfully as a sinner or a saint. There’s this thing about her – a combination of purity and beauty and yet of corruption…She’s beautiful, seductive and sexy.” Baker, for her part said, “The world is preoccupied with sex, and I guess I’m part of my time…I’m interested in playing the modern woman who has become so liberated she has given way to all sorts of passions and desires. If a script calls for nudity, if it seems to be an inherent part of the character that I’m playing, then why shouldn’t it be done that way?”

By 1966, Baker had become an internationally renowned actress, having starred in 15 films. She traveled to Vietnam with Bob Hope’s Christmas USO troupe to entertain American troops.

Carroll Baker talks with a wounded soldier in Vietnam. Box 12, Carroll Baker papers, Collection No. 5474, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Back in California, tensions with her studio were mounting. Amid a legal dispute over her contract with Paramount, Baker moved to Italy with her children. She separated from Garfein in 1964, and they divorced in 1969.

Baker returned to the U.S. after acting in a series of Italian films in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In the 1980s, she turned her attention to writing, publishing three books, including Baby Doll: An Autobiography. And, defying the odds, she continued to act. Her 1990s television credits include roles in Tales from the Crypt and Murder, She Wrote. She also appeared in films like Kindergarten Cop with Arnold Schwarzenegger, Dalva with Farah Fawcett and The Game with Michael Douglas. Baker formally retired in 2003, having spent nearly fifty years acting on stage and on screens both large and small.

Carroll Baker’s career reflects both the glamour and the grit of Hollywood’s golden age. From her humble beginnings to her transformation into an international star, she defied the industry’s attempts to confine her to a single image. Baker was never just the blonde bombshell on the marquee; she was a woman of depth and conviction who brought courage and vulnerability to every role she played. Through talent, resilience, and an unyielding sense of self, Baker proved that she was far more than a sex symbol—she was a complex artist whose performances continue to captivate audiences decades later.

Post contributed by AHC Writer Kathryn Billington.

Posted in Biography and profiles, Collections Highlights, Film History, Hollywood history, Uncategorized | Tagged 1950s, 1960s, Actors Studio, Actresses, Baby Doll, Carroll Baker, Cheyenne Autumn, film history, Giant, Hollywood, Jack Garfein, John Ford, Method acting, Tennessee Williams, The Carpetbaggers, Women in Film, Wyoming history | Leave a comment

AHC Archivists coauthor book about the history of the Western Research Institute and Bureau of Mines

Posted on December 1, 2025 by ahcadmin

American Heritage Center archivists, Erin Shadrick and John Waggener, recently coauthored a book about the history of the Western Research Institute and its predecessor Bureau of Mines.

University of Wyoming Archivist John Waggener

The 73-page book, One Hundred Years on the High Plains of Technology, tells the story of the first 100 years of what began as the federal Bureau of Mines located on the campus of the University of Wyoming and eventually expanded into what became the Western Research Institute that now occupies research facilities on nearly 27 acres of land just north of Laramie on U.S. Highway 30 (North 3^rd Street).

The United States Bureau of Mines played a crucial role in the development of the nation’s mineral resources, ensuring safety in mining operations, and fostering innovation in the energy sector. Established in 1910, the bureau’s function was to promote wise development and use of the nation’s mineral resources and safe working conditions in its mineral industries.

Erin Shadrick presenting WRI history at the institution’s 100^th anniversary celebration in November 2024.

The federal agency had an immediate presence in the state of Wyoming. Mine rescue and safety offices were established in several mining communities, including Rock Springs, where numerous underground coal mines operated to supply coal to the Union Pacific Railroad. In 1913, an office opened in Casper to oversee petroleum development at such sites as the Salt Creek Field and later Teapot Dome. In 1913, the U.S. Geological Survey launched an investigation of the country’s largest concentration of oil-shale resources: the Green River Formation, covering over 17,000 square miles of land in southwest Wyoming and northwest Colorado and northeast Utah.

The Salt Creek Oil Field, shown here around 1921. One of the largest oil fields in the nation, Salt Creek has produced over 209 million barrels of light oil since its discovery in 1889. Box 1, Wyoming Oilfields Photograph Album, Coll. No. 2244, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

The Bureau of Mines also opened multiple research laboratories around the nation. When oil and gas exploration boomed in the 1920s, states like Wyoming, rich with petroleum resources, could benefit from having a research station to assist companies in developing the resource.

Wyoming’s Bureau of Mines research station was initiated during a chance meeting on a train. George E. Brimmer, a prominent attorney who practiced in Rawlins before moving to Cheyenne, had an interest in developing Wyoming’s economic resources, including petroleum. While on a trip from Oklahoma back to Wyoming in June 1923, Brimmer met Theodore E. Swigart, the Superintendent of the Bureau of Mines research station in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. Brimmer related his encounter to members of the University of Wyoming Board of Trustees:

In the latter part of June, I was down in Oklahoma, and while coming up North on the train a gentleman came back and introduced himself as Mr. Swigart, as I remember the name. It appeared that he formerly knew me in Wyoming. At the present time he is head of the Bartlesville Testing Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, located at Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It appears that Bartlesville is the principle testing laboratory station of the Bureau of Mines…I went into the proposition of establishing a branch testing laboratory in Wyoming with Mr. Swigart and requested him to take it up with the Chief of the Bureau of Mines when he went back to Washington. This was agreed to. About a month later I received a letter from Mr. Swigart advising me that he had taken the matter up with Mr. Tough, his chief, and that he wished I would look into the matter thoroughly when I went to Washington.
Dictation of George Brimmer testimony to Secretary to the University Trustees, August 22, 1923, University of Wyoming President’s Office Records, Box 28, Folder 19, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Brimmer then traveled to Washington to meet Fred B. Tough, the chief petroleum engineer for the bureau. Brimmer described his meeting with Tough:

When I was at Washington in July, I went in to see Mr. Tough, and found him conversing with Mr. Hill who is a brother of Prof. [John A.] Hill of the University. Mr. Hill is one of the chief chemists in the Government service, and is a personal friend of Mr. Tough. Mr. Tough had been in Wyoming a good many years and personally we were well acquainted.
Ibid.

F. B. Tough had been involved in the development of the Salt Creek Field near Casper several years earlier. His bureau research led to methods of using cement for water shutoff in the Salt Creek Field. He also engaged in oil shale research in the Green River Formation of southwest Wyoming and northwest Colorado and was instrumental in locating a naval oil shale reserve in northwest Colorado, near Parachute.

Harry H. Hill. His work with the U.S. Bureau of Mines and connections to Wyoming helped secure the Bureau’s Laramie research facility in 1924. Source: 1911-1912 University of Wyoming yearbook.

Tough had moved into his Washington office a year earlier. He had been the supervisor of oil and gas leases for the Bureau of Mines and was replaced by Harry H. Hill in the fall of 1922. Hill came to that position from Bartlesville where he had been the superintendent. When Hill left the Bartlesville position, it was filled by T. E. Swigart.

The strong connections that Fred Tough and Harry Hill had to the state greatly increased Wyoming’s chances of securing a Bureau of Mines facility. Harry H. Hill and his brother John A. Hill graduated from the University of Wyoming in 1911 and 1907, respectively. In the summer of 1913, Harry Hill began working for the Bureau of Mines in Washington D.C. As Brimmer noted in his report to the Board of Trustees in 1923, John A. Hill was, by then, the Dean of the University of Wyoming’s College of Agriculture.

On September 1, 1923, Brimmer sent a Western Union telegram to the Board of Trustees advising:

Suggest that if favorable action is to be taken that resolution be adopted providing for expenditure not exceeding Twenty-Five Thousand for construction of building on campus to be utilized by Bureau of Mines for petroleum laboratories and offices under plans to be furnished by Bureau conditioned that Secretary of Interior agrees to establish branch at Laramie.
Telegram from George Brimmer to the Secretary of the Board of Trustees, September 1, 1923, University of Wyoming President’s Office Records, Box 28, Folder 19, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

During its September 5, 1923, meeting, the Board of Trustees voted to enter “negotiations with the Government and that the Committee be authorized to furnish such quarters as they deem advisable to secure the location on the campus of a Federal petroleum testing laboratory, the expenses not to exceed $25,000.” (Source: University of Wyoming Board of Trustees Meeting Minutes, September 5, 1923, Board of Trustees Records, Box 11, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.)

The new Bureau of Mines facility opened on July 1, 1924, and was initially housed in the new Engineering Shops located behind the College of Engineering Building that was still under construction. In the fall of 1935, the operation moved into a new building located along Lewis Street behind the College of Agriculture. Bureau of Mines research grew significantly during World War II when the demand for petroleum resources increased.

The Bureau of Mines location (the large rectangular structure on the left) at the University of Wyoming, 1928. American Heritage Center Photo Files.

Bureau of Mines staff outside of the Petroleum Experiment Station building, 1938. From left to right: H.M. Thorne, Amelia M. Peterson, Ralph Espach, Stella Sandell, Walter Murphy, H.P. Rue, H. Dale Nichols, John S. Ball, and K.E. Stanfield. Box 22, Ludwig & Svenson Photographs, Coll. No. 167, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming

In 1944, efforts to open a much larger research facility began. A new Bureau of Mines Building site was located at the northwest corner of campus at the intersection of 9^th and Lewis Street. The multi-story building was completed in 1947 and offered additional space for the expanding number of engineers and scientists who would begin their work in Laramie.

View of new building, July 29, 1947. Photo courtesy of the Western Research Institute.

In the late 1960s, the Bureau of Mines secured land just north of the city on U.S. 30 (North 3^rd Street) to conduct larger-scale retort experiments. As the nation was expanding its highway system, asphalt research expanded, and the Laramie Research Station became a leader in asphalt research. Each year since the mid-1960s, an international conference, now known as the Petersen Asphalt Research Conference (PARC) has held an annual conference in Laramie. The conference is named in honor of Joseph Claine Petersen who came to Laramie in 1964 where he focused on asphalt research at the bureau. He is recognized as one of the foremost experts in asphalt research. He retired from the Western Research Institute in 1990.

In the 1970s, during a federal reorganization, the Bureau of Mines became a part of the Department of Energy, and the Laramie station became known as the Laramie Energy Technology Center (LETC.) Then, in 1983, the federal government planned to shut down the Laramie office, after a reorganization of the Department of Energy. The University of Wyoming saw the need to maintain the Laramie office and entered negotiations with the Department of Energy to take control of the office. An official signing ceremony occurred on campus on March 19, 1983, when the federal office was turned over to the university as the University of Wyoming Research Corporation that was overseen by a board of directors. Several months later, this research corporation became known as the Western Research Institute.

When the Western Research Institute and the University of Wyoming came to realize that the joint relationship was no longer necessary, the Western Research Institute formally separated from the university on September 17, 2020, making WRI an independent non-profit research corporation. WRI slowly began to move its operation from the Bureau of Mines Building to the north site.

On July 1, 2023, 99 years to the day after the Bureau of Mines established a presence on the University of Wyoming campus, the WRI had fully transitioned to the north site. Though this marked an end to its physical presence on campus, WRI and UW continue to work closely together on a variety of research projects. WRI has expanded its research and development beyond asphalt to biomass, hydrocarbon, and polymer resources.

Aerial long view of the Western Research Institute in 2024. Courtesy of Kyriessa Lane, Xanadu Productions.

Copies of the book that tell this story in more detail are available by contacting the Western Research Institute directly. The authors want to thank Paul Flesher, the director of the American Heritage Center, for supporting this project and Didier Lesueur, CEO of Western Research Institute for providing the opportunity to research and write the book – a project that took more than one year to complete.

Post contributed by University Archivist John Waggener and Accessing Unit Supervisor Erin Shadrick.

Sources:

University of Wyoming Presidents Office records, Collection 510000, American Heritage Center.
University of Wyoming Board of Trustees records, Collection 500000, American Heritage Center.

Posted in Authors, Uncategorized, University of Wyoming | Tagged asphalt research, Bureau of Mines, energy research, Erin Shadrick, George Brimmer, Harry H. Hill, John Waggener, Laramie history, oil shale, petroleum research, Salt Creek Oil Field, University of Wyoming history, Western Research Institute, Wyoming history | 2 Comments

From Turkey to Timbales: Thanksgiving Traditions in the Toppan Rare Book Library

Posted on November 24, 2025 by ahcadmin

As Thanksgiving approaches, here a look at some culinary treasures at the Toppan Rare Book Library—two cookbooks that show how Americans have celebrated the holiday across different eras.

A Child’s Party Paradise

Let’s start with the more playful of our two books: Cornelia Staley’s Childrens Party Book: Games, Decorations, Menus, and Recipes from 1935. Part of the Mary Kay Mason Collection, this delightful volume is packed with ideas for making celebrations special—even during the Depression years when money was tight.

The Thanksgiving section is particularly charming. Staley suggests sending invitations with turkey stickers and a clever rhyme about the Pilgrims coming over in 1620. For entertainment, she recommends “Turkey in the Straw”—a game where kids hunt for a cellophane-wrapped chocolate turkey hidden in straw. You can almost hear the laughter.

The menu she proposes is quite practical: Creamed Tuna Fish in Toast Baskets, Candied Sweet Potatoes, Apple, Celery and Marshmallow Salad, Chocolate Pudding, Monkey Faces cookies, and milk. Not exactly traditional Thanksgiving fare, but perfect for a children’s party when you’re watching your budget. And honestly, Monkey Faces cookies sound pretty great.

Cover of Childrens' Party Book by Cornelia Staley — The colorful cover of Cornelia Staley’s Childrens’ Party Book (1935) promises festive fun for every occasion, from Halloween witches to Christmas celebrations. From the Mary Kay Mason Collection, Toppan Rare Book Library.

Description of a Thanksgiving party with recipes from Childrens' Party Book. — Staley’s Thanksgiving Party section features whimsical illustrations and offers creative party ideas including the “Turkey in the Straw” game and a simplified holiday menu perfect for young guests.

The Authority on American Cooking

Now for the serious stuff. Our 1909 edition of The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book by Fannie Merritt Farmer is from the Eliza W. Toppan Collection, and it’s a beauty. If you’ve ever followed a recipe, you owe Fannie Farmer a debt of gratitude. She’s the one who insisted on level measurements—no more “a pinch of this” or “a handful of that.” Her precision earned her the nickname “The Mother of Level Measurements,” and it changed American cooking forever.

The worn cover of the 1909 edition of Fannie Merritt Farmer’s The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book testifies to its frequent use. From the Eliza W. Toppan Collection, Toppan Rare Book Library.

Farmer’s approach to roasting turkey is meticulous. Dress, clean, stuff, and truss your ten-pound bird. Rub it with salt. Coat it with butter mixed with flour. Place it in a hot oven. Then—and here’s the labor-intensive part—baste it every fifteen minutes for three hours. Every. Fifteen. Minutes. Thanksgiving dinner was serious business in 1909.

The stuffing options are impressive: Chestnut, Oyster, or Swedish Style. And if you really wanted to go all out, there’s a recipe for Chestnut Gravy that involves mashing chestnuts and adding them to the turkey drippings. These were not shortcuts-in-the-kitchen kind of people.

More Than Just Recipes

What makes these books special isn’t just the recipes—it’s the glimpse they give us into how people actually lived and celebrated. Farmer’s cookbook shows us the elaborate, formal holiday dinners of the early 1900s. Staley’s party book reveals how families found creative ways to celebrate during tough economic times. Together, they tell the story of how Thanksgiving evolved from a Victorian feast to something more relaxed and family-friendly.

These cookbooks live at the Toppan Rare Book Library, where they’re preserved for anyone curious about how we’ve fed ourselves—and celebrated together—over the years. This Thanksgiving, while you’re enjoying your own meal (and probably not basting anything every fifteen minutes), you might spare a thought for all those cooks who came before, doing their best to make the day special.

Post contributed by Leslie Waggener with special thanks to Toppan Rare Books Curator Dr. Mary Beth Brown for supplying books and images.

Posted in Collections Highlights, Toppan Rare Books Library, Uncategorized | Tagged Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, Childrens' Party Book, Cookbooks, Cornelia Staley, Culinary history, Fannie Merritt Farmer, Food history, Great Depression, Holiday celebrations, Recipes, Thanksgiving | Leave a comment

Finding Nigeria in Indigenous American Archives

Posted on November 17, 2025 by ahcadmin

When I first opened the lid of the gray archival box at the American Heritage Center, I was both exhilarated and apprehensive, the kind of feeling you get when you encounter something that is both fragile and alive.

In it, buried under files thick with history, is a picture that takes my breath away. It translated into an image of Arapaho boys at a mission school in the late 19th century. At first glance, it appeared one of those black-and-white photographs you flip through quickly in history books—clamped buttons on stiff collars, stiff postures, a missionary and a priest to one side, their power cordoned off. But the longer I looked at it, the weightier the image appeared. I observed boys whose eyes alternated between obedience and defiance, children trapped in a world not their own. That was when I realized that the archives weren’t just piles of paper. They were voices, waiting for someone to listen.

Photograph of boys at the first mission school on the reservation, ca. 1890. Dr. John Roberts (seated at far right) and Rev. Sherman Coolidge (standing at far left). John Roberts papers, Coll. No. 37, Box 3, Folder 3, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Arriving from Nigeria

I came from Nigeria to Wyoming to study for a master’s in American Studies. I grew up in Nigeria, and this resonates well with our history, the influence of colonial legacies on our education. Most of Nigerian schools spoke English— not my grandparents’ indigenous languages. Our history books seemed as if they had been written from an outsider’s perspective—by people who believed they understood our history better than we did. School was supposed to be free, but it often meant learning someone else’s idea of who we were.

That background made me deeply curious about Native American history and education in the United States. What role had colonization played in shaping Indigenous schooling here? How had Native communities resisted? Could those archival records—the letters, the photographs, the missionary diaries, the linguistic notes—present a more complete picture than the one most Americans learn in their classrooms?

When I encountered the John Roberts Papers and Zdeněk Salzmann’s Arapaho linguistic collection at the AHC, my sense of connection was of a different kind. The contexts were different—Nigeria in West Africa and Indigenous communities in the American West—but the themes felt all too familiar: Cultures under attack and languages pushed to the margins as foreign ideas were forced onto the hearts of children, who were squeezed into an educational mold meant to erase them.

Reading Missionary Diaries

The diaries of Reverend John Roberts, who worked among the Arapaho people, were particularly striking. They carried the confidence of a man who believed in his mission—that Native children could be “civilized” through Christian schooling. I initially found the tone irksome. It reflected the colonial mindset of the time that considered cultural difference something to snuff out.

But as I read more carefully, I noticed something else. I noticed some cracks in the narrative. While Roberts wrote about discipline, conversion and instruction, he was also inadvertently penning persistence and survival among the people. What he encountered as challenges to his work, I saw as glimmers of agency—tough reminders that the Indigenous identity could not so easily be wiped away.

Encountering a Language in Fragments

Salzmann’s linguistic research on the Arapaho language showed another side of the story. Box after box contained vocabulary flashcards, phonetic transcriptions, and grammatical outlines. Where the diaries often spoke of loss, these notes felt like seeds. They represented a determined effort to preserve and pass on a language at risk.

Looking at those materials, I thought about Yoruba, my own language. In Nigeria, many young people grow up speaking only English in schools. Local languages fade when they are not supported in classrooms. Salzmann’s notes reminded me that language is more than a tool for communication — it is memory, worldview, and identity.

Building Lesson Plans

Using these sets, I created lesson plans for high school teachers. I had a simple goal: to bring archival materials out of boxes and into classrooms where they could inspire curiosity, empathy, and critical thinking.

The AHC doesn’t yet have a dedicated curriculum program—there simply aren’t enough staff for that—but my lesson plans will soon be available to teachers through Brie Blasi, who oversees the Center’s Education and Outreach Department. I hope the plans will help students do more than just memorize dates but instead encourage inquiry. For instance, students could compare a Native student’s letter with a missionary’s diary entry and look for differences in perspective. Or they can research Salzmann’s language charts and oral histories and consider what it means to lose (or save) a language.

The idea is not to tell students what to think, but to have them grapple with the complexities of the past. That kind of active engagement can transform how history feels: no longer distant or abstract, but deeply human.

Classroom posters showing Arapaho language numbers and color words. Photo: Katie Klingsporn/WyoFile.

A Personal Journey

For me, this project has always been more than just academic. It was personal.

As I combed through the archives, I was vexed by the specter of Nigeria—of children like me who had grown up learning in a foreign language, of grandparents whose stories had never made it onto the pages of textbooks, and of the ways in which colonization continues to haunt our classrooms. The similarities we identified in the American West both broke and fulfilled our hearts. It reminded me that the fight to protect culture and to remember is not something that happens exclusively in one place.

And I also thought about what it means to be a visitor to these archives. As a Nigerian citizen, I am not an interlocutor of Indigenous histories in the United States. But that distance gave me perspective. I saw echoes across histories separated by oceans, and I could bring a sense of both humility and fellowship to these materials. In a way, working in the archives felt like a bridge between two worlds—a search for resonance between Nigeria and Native America.

Phonetic and orthographic chart of the Arapaho language from the Zdeněk Salzmann Arapaho Indian Research papers, Coll. No. 8203, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Why Archives Matter

Before working on this project, I viewed the archives as dusty, behind-closed-doors repositories meant for academics. Now I see them differently. Archives are not neutral; they bear on memory, identity and justice. They carry the weight of colonial silences and the force of Indigenous persistence. When we open these boxes—when we also listen deeply—they can even transform the way we think of the pain of the past and the possibilities of the future.

Getting archives into classrooms amplifies that effect. It teaches students that history is not just what textbooks tell us It’s not some abstract thing they only see from a distance; it is something upon which they can lay their hands, feel and raise questions about said mess. They find that a photograph, letter or vocabulary card can tell powerful stories that complicate the simpler narratives they might have heard in their youths. Most important, they develop empathy because archives aren’t just about dates and events, they are about people.

Carrying Stories Forward

I cannot forget that photograph of the Arapaho boys. Their faces are a reminder that history is not just the past; it’s the choices we make about whose voices we elevate and which stories we bring with us and which we provide for the next generation to remember.

Around the world—in Nigeria, in Native American communities, and beyond—education has served as both a space of loss and a mode of resistance. Archives help us confront those histories honestly. They remind us that preservation is an act of care, and that teaching can be a form of justice.

Archives are not simply repositories of the past. They are bridges. And as I learned in my time at the American Heritage Center, we have a responsibility to cross them.

Post contributed by Joseph Egungbemi, graduate student in UW’s American Studies program and Summer 2025 American Heritage Center intern.

Posted in Colonial Studies, Cross-Cultural Analysis, Indigenous Peoples, International Perspectives, Student projects, Uncategorized | Tagged Arapaho, Colonial education, Cultural identity, Cultural resistance, Indigenous education, International studies, Language preservation, Missionary schools, Nigeria, Reverend John Roberts, Yoruba language, Zdeněk Salzmann | 1 Comment

Letters Home from Vietnam – One Pilot’s Story

Posted on November 10, 2025 by lwaggen2

This Veterans Day, which is November 11th, marks the end of the 50^th Anniversary Commemoration of the Vietnam War. The thirteen-year commemoration period was launched in 2012 by President Barack Obama to honor Vietnam veterans and their families.

Almost 2.7 million servicemen and women served over the course of the nearly 20-year-long conflict in Vietnam. One of those men was Leslie Herman Klahn Jr. He served as an Army helicopter pilot in Vietnam from August 1967 through July 1968. Among his papers are letters he wrote to his parents in Colorado, first from Army bases in the U.S. where he was in training, and later from Vietnam.

Leslie Herman Klahn Jr. (or simply “Jr” as he signed off on his letters) was both a devoted son and dependable correspondent. His father had served in the National Guard during World War II, so it is perhaps not surprising that Klahn Jr. joined the ROTC at the University of Wyoming. It was a brave decision, as the U.S. involvement in the war with Vietnam was already underway.

By July 1966 Klahn was headed to basic training at the Army’s Fort Polk in Louisiana. After graduating from basic training, where he was awarded a trophy for marksmanship, Klahn received his orders to flight school at Fort Wolters in Texas. He began in October 1966. Klahn described flight school as “real tough,” writing home:

I haven’t given up, and I am studying all the time – you just don’t know how much I want to prove to myself, you and Janice [his girlfriend] that I can succeed at something. If I fail I just don’t know what I’d do!

At the end of October, he mailed his parents this postcard, showing a helicopter staging field. He wrote on the back, “This is what I will fly – I hope.”

Postcard showing and OH-23 “Raven” hovering among the hundreds of helicopters at the US Army Primary Helicopter School at Fort Wolters, Texas. Box 1, L.H. Klahn Jr. papers, Collection No. 11676, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

But Klahn wrestled with nerves and self-doubt. On October 22, 1966, he wrote:

I just can’t see myself flying that damn thing. But I am really looking forward to it. We’ll start flying a week from Monday, and I am getting nervous right now.

After weeks of arduous training, Klahn’s skill as a pilot grew. He was preparing for combat in Vietnam. Yet, even as a student, flying was not without risks. Three of his classmates were killed in a midair collision and two more died when their helicopter’s engine failed. Accidents at the training field were not uncommon.

Photograph of a Hughes TH-55A helicopter used for at the US Army Primary Helicopter School at Fort Wolters, Texas. Box 1, L.H. Klahn Jr. papers.

Having seen fatal crashes firsthand, and forced to grapple with his own mortality, Klahn and his girlfriend Jan decided to get married after he graduated from flight school. He wrote to his parents, “I guess you don’t approve, but we want to be together that short time than nothing at all – that is if something happens to me in V.C. [Viet Cong] country.”

By August of 1967, Klahn had arrived in Cam Ranh Bay. He wrote, “Well I am in Vietnam – it sure doesn’t seem like it – it’s so peaceful here.”

Map of Southeast Asia, showing Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand. Box 3, L.H. Klahn Jr. papers.

The peace didn’t last though. His orders were to join the 1^st Cavalry Division. He was assigned to Company A of the 227^th Aviation Regiment, Helicopter Battalion. At first, he flew supply runs with an instructor pilot but before long he was flying in combat missions.

First page of a letter from L.H. Klahn Jr. to his parents, August 25, 1967. Box 1, L.H. Klahn Jr. papers.

Klahn had encounters with the Viet Cong from the air and in one memorable incident early in his deployment, on the ground. He wrote:

I guess your son is some kind of hero – I didn’t fly today, so I went to a lot of shops, took a lot of pictures and bought a grass mat for my area. Well, walking back I got lost, and ended up on one of the side streets. I stopped to take a picture of a Budha [sic] temple when I noticed this guy sitting in his yard eating as fast as he could. He wore the typical black pajamas and had a rifle sitting beside him. Like a fool I started walking toward him, he started running – I ran around the house and he ran almost into me – we just stood there looking at each other – then I motioned with my pistol for him to drop his rifle – and he did. I then took him to the MP’s [Military Police] – and he turned out to be a VC [Viet Cong]. I just got thru talking to the major, and he said he would put me in for some medal. That’s the last time I’ll do something like that – next time he’ll probably start shooting.

Klahn learned to endure sniper fire. He flew combat troops into landing zones. He marveled at the way in which everyday life for many of the Vietnamese continued, despite the war raging on. And he wrote, “I like what I am doing, and it’s doing some good.”

By September of 1967, Klahn was already anticipating a springtime R&R trip to Hawaii to meet up with his wife, Jan. He flew on missions further north, writing, “I understand that the VC have a battalion headquarters and hospital up here [near Song Mao], but we can never find it.” The Army supplied Klahn with a carton of cigarettes a week and an unlimited supply of candy, but it was salty snacks from home that he missed the most. So, his parents sent him Wheat Thins and Cheez-Its.

On October 5, 1967, Klahn wrote:

We are getting ready to move…all indications are that we will move to the area around the DMZ zone. We have been told that we can only take 3 bags. We had a bad accident here today, 3 people were killed, and one was burned badly. Both pilots were killed – they both lived in the same tent as I do and were close friends. Only one was married. They were returning from a CA [combat assault] in a flight of 5 – they were the 4^th A/C [aircraft] – they were landing when they went out of control – due to a mechanical failure in the flight controls and crashed. It started to burn, but since they were low on fuel it wasn’t as bad as it could have been, but all were burned. It really hits home when something like this happens, we all expect being shot at, and possibly hit, but when the A/C just fall apart it just isn’t fair.

By mid-October, Klahn wrote, “I sure do enjoy flying…even though the strain etc is starting to wear me out.” Days off were few and far between. Klahn had flown forty days with just a single day’s break. He noted that further north:

[T]hey are getting shot at a little more than we are, but they have a policy that when they receive fire they shoot up the whole village, the people are starting to learn that it’s not safe to shoot at one – that’s the case down here. Here’s why – if you get shot at, in 10 to 15 min. we can … air lift troops to the area … plus the gun ship are there by [the] time we are, so Charlie [a colloquial term for the Viet Cong] doesn’t have much time to get away.

December found Klahn in another close call with the Viet Cong. He described it to his parents:

We have been having all kinds of action lately – most of the LZ’s [landing zones] that we have been going into have been hot. Before we went in we had an air strike, and artillery prep, then then gun ships went it, then us – but the VC being dug in as good as they were, it didn’t do much – the first ship got in, so did the second, the third got half its troops off, then the VC shot down #2, he was hit so bad that he was losing all his fuel so he flew it back in to the LZ, because there just wasn’t any other place to go because of trees – the third ship got hit real bad on the way out – I was the 4^th ship, but we never did land in the LZ hence we didn’t get shot. I sure feel lucky because I would have been on that second ship, but the AC [Aircraft Commander] wanted to fly with a new guy to give him so training, so I was #4 – hence I didn’t have to spend the night on the ground with the VC.

The end of December 1967 brought a 24-hour Christmas Day truce and a turkey dinner for the troops. But Klahn still flew his normal missions writing, “without a calendar it would be just another day in Vietnam.” When Klahn wasn’t flying, he was busy writing all kinds of reports as the company safety officer. And he was also building a hooch [colloquial for a rudimentary house] for himself. In one of his letters home, he drew a sketch and wrote:

Looks like we’ll be here a while, so we have started to improve our housing…We had a good floor and it had sand bags around it – so all we had to do is put our tent over it. Then we built an addition on to it, so it makes all kinds of room for two people. It looks something like this.

Page of a letter from L.H. Klahn Jr. to his parents showing his plan for a new house, January 28, 1968. Box 2, L.H. Klahn Jr. papers.

By February, Klahn had been moved northwest of the town of Hue. He wrote:

It is called Camp Evans. It doesn’t have an air field, but one is to be completed soon. The fighting is very heavy but the NVA [North Vietnamese Army] have been taking heavy casualties. If we can ever get decent weather we’ll be more effective. At the present time we have been flying with 200ft ceilings – and the NVA have taken advantage of it. The city of Hue was considered the most beautiful city in the country – it had the countries [sic] university – had canals with tree lined gardens along all the streets, etc. Well, it has had at least 1/3 destroyed, and when the weather breaks we’ll be making assaults on it. Plus air strikes are planned, so as to level the city…Camp Evans has been mortared almost every night and the heart does jump when they start landing.

As the month closed, Klahn voiced some frustration to his parents, writing:

[E]verything has been the usual army way – the weather is terrible (150’ ceiling), the NVA shoot at you all the time, and they still haven’t given our R&R…We have had quite a few A/C [aircraft] shot – plus about 1/3 damage due to our about nightly mortar attacks…The fighting is typical WWII & Korean wars tactics. They have their positions, and we ours. The fighting is heavy and constant … all we do is fly log and med evac… besides being scared a few times I am fine.

Map showing Camp Evans, Hue and Phan Thiet, Vietnam sent by L.H. Klahn Jr. to his parents, March 2, 1968. Box 2, L.H. Klahn Jr. papers.

In March 1968, Klahn’s long awaited R&R finally came through. But the return to the war required some adjustment. Still, he remained optimistic, writing:

Well, I am back fighting the war – but with only 4 months to go time should pass rather quickly…There’s no way to describe the trip – it was really enjoyable and a welcome relief from this place. But coming back…was really a let down as you can imagine.

On April 14, 1968, Klahn wrote:

The main reason for this letter is to inform you that I received a slight wound and didn’t want you to worry when you get a notice from the Army that I have been wounded. I was on a night hunter mission and we put our foot into somewhere that it shouldn’t have been. We were shot down, and in the process I received light shrapnel wounds to the left leg. But it’s ok – I’ll be flying in a few days and looks like I’ll get that purple heart along with another DFC [Distinguished Flying Cross] that I have been put in for, for last night’s extravaganza.

The month of May brought more problems for Klahn. He was hospitalized, first at the 95^th Evac Hospital at Da Nang and then the 6^th Convalescent Center at Cam Ranh Bay. After some confusion about the diagnosis, it was determined that he had a bad case of mononucleosis. He wrote:

I don’t feel too bad now – but up at Evans I thought I would die. There was a span of 8 days where I didn’t eat a thing … In any case I only have 70 some days left in country – and I will not fly again over here if I have anything to do with it.

After 30 days convalescing, Klahn returned to the war. And by June 22, 1968, he was back in the pilot’s seat “due to the fact that I got bored stiff.” Then came good news – Klahn was being promoted to Chief Warrant Officer 2. By July, his passion for flying was superseded by his desire to return home to Colorado. Upon learning of his discharge date, Klahn, with his sense of humor still intact, sent this tongue-in-cheek letter to his parents.

Letter from L.H. Klahn Jr. to his parents announcing his discharge, July 1968. Box 2, L.H. Klahn Jr. papers.

On August 7, 1968, Klahn returned to Colorado, having flown a total of 909 hours in Vietnam. He had served valiantly and survived despite the odds. This Veterans Day, we remember Klahn and the millions more who were prepared to make the ultimate sacrifice, fighting heroically to uphold American ideals far from home. You can read L.H. Klahn Jr.’s letters to his parents at the American Heritage Center or access the digitized letters here.

Post contributed by AHC Writer Kathryn Billington

Posted in military history, Uncategorized, Veterans history, Vietnam War | Tagged 1st Cavalry Division, 227th Aviation Regiment, Army aviation, Army helicopter pilots, Cam Ranh Bay, Camp Evans, combat missions, Fort Wolters, helicopter warfare, Hue, L.H. Klahn Jr., military correspondence, University of Wyoming ROTC, Veterans Day, Vietnam War, Vietnam War 50th Anniversary, wartime letters | Leave a comment

The Work of Respect: Student Interns Lead Indigenous Collection Review

Posted on November 3, 2025 by lwaggen2

This month is Native American Heritage month, and this year, the American Heritage Center has chosen to highlight two student interns currently working on an internship project with us. Georgie Moss and Darwin St. Clair are working with the Native American collections to assist in the ethical stewardship of our collections related to Native and Indigenous communities.

Left to right: Georgie Moss and Darwin St. Clair.

These two interns are affiliated with the Native American Education, Research, & Cultural Center (NAERCC) at the University of Wyoming. They’re focusing on collections associated with primarily the Northern Arapaho, Eastern Shoshone, and Crow nations to help the AHC begin to identify, evaluate, and develop protocols for engaging tribal communities in discussions about the future stewardship of these collections.

The goals of the internship include providing the students with archival research skills and archival handling and evaluation experience. In return, these students aim to help us begin to better understand our Native American collections, their relationships to tribal nations, and help us begin to plan how to steward these collections moving forward.

This semester Georgie and Darwin began looking through some of the AHC’s collections that center around or contain Native American material. They have looked at the Demitri B. Shimkin papers, the John Roberts papers, and have just begun reviewing the Emily Hill and Dorothy Tappy Ghost Dance Audio collection. They examined the material within these collections and began to make observations on the content.

Arapaho to English translations in Box 1, Folder 14 of the John Roberts papers at the American Heritage Center.

Darwin is a senior in UW’s Education program. He’ll be student teaching in the spring, and wants to teach math once he graduates. He was surprised at some of the material in the AHC’s holdings, and that anyone can come look at the breadth of resources available here. He noticed that, although the Shimkin papers has many interviews with tribal members, there were no names for half of the people interviewed. He’s been working to contact the Tribal Historic Preservation Officer to see if they have some of the place names he has come across on maps, or anything on the reservation. Darwin is enjoying the internship and the AHC is certainly benefitting from his work and knowledge.

Georgie is a sophomore in the Secondary Education program within UW’s Environment & Natural Resources department. Outside the classroom, she enjoys sewing, beading, photography, and spending time outdoors. Her love of learning new things drew her to this internship opportunity. A highlight for Georgie was discovering the language material written in cursive throughout the collections. She found the interviews and language records particularly compelling as she and Darwin spent about two months working through the Shimkin papers.

The American Heritage Center is eager to learn from these two students as they chart a path forward for stewarding these collections. Both students have begun to develop ideas regarding types of collection material we should steward more carefully, especially regarding content related to the Sun Dance. They’ll produce an end-of-semester report recommending which materials may require limited access and which should become priorities for enhanced stewardship practices.

The project’s end goal is the formation of a working group to advise on community participation and collection stewardship with the tribal nations. This group will provide recommendations for how the AHC can engage with these communities in the care and decision-making involved in stewarding these collections. Eventually the working group will assist us with recommendations for a standing advisory board or other group to work with both the AHC and tribal nations. This advisory board would provide guidelines and procedures for the Center to follow when using, collecting, or otherwise caring for Native American collection materials.

Moving forward with this internship and these long-term goals, the AHC hopes to build and strengthen ties with tribal communities, honoring their deep history in Wyoming through respectful care of these collections.

We thank Georgie and Darwin for stepping up to help us take these first steps and look forward to the continued collaboration with both the NAERCC and the tribal communities.

Post contributed by AHC Processing Archivist Brittany Heye.

Posted in Interns' projects, Native American Heritage Month, Native American history, Uncategorized | Tagged American Heritage Center, archival education, archival internship, Community Engagement, Crow Nation, cultural sensitivity, Darwin St. Clair, Demitri B. Shimkin papers, Eastern Shoshone, ethical stewardship, Georgie Moss, Indigenous collections, John Roberts papers, NAERCC, Native American Education, Northern Arapaho, tribal consultation, University of Wyoming | Leave a comment

After “Psycho”: Robert Bloch in the 1960s

Posted on October 27, 2025 by lwaggen2

Last Halloween, we introduced the recently processed papers of author Robert Bloch, best known as the author of the novel Psycho (1959), which was adapted in 1960 by Alfred Hitchcock into the legendary film of the same name. In that blog post, we explored materials in the Bloch papers related to both Bloch’s novel and Hitchcock’s film. In the decade that followed, Bloch was extremely prolific, writing novels, short stories, and scripts for movies and episodes of television series. Now we will explore some of the materials in the collection representing that work.

Novels

During the 1960s, Bloch published no less than six novels, as well as an anthology of two novellas (Ladies’ Day / This Crowded Earth). Among those novels are two that Bloch discussed in some detail in his autobiography, Once Around the Bloch (1993).

The Star Stalker (1968) – Bloch originally titled this novel “Colossal,” which he described as “a saga of silent-screen Hollywood during the twenties which ended with the advent of sound.” Explaining the delay in getting this book published, Bloch stated in his autobiography:

The nostalgia boom wasn’t ‘in,’ film historians were just beginning to probe the past, and biographies of stars and directors had yet to attain best-seller status. In the end, it took a dozen years for the book to reach print in paperback. Even then, the publishers disguised its contents by changing my title to ‘The Star Stalker,’ with a deliberately misleading blurb and cover art to match.

“Although a carbon, this is the original manuscript of the novel published as The Star Stalker by Pyramid in 1968. The first copy was lost. I then revised this version – shortening it and adding various episodes, but all is based on this copy.” – Robert Bloch. Box 247, Bloch papers.

The Todd Dossier (1969) – As Bloch explained in his note accompanying the copy of the novel in his papers:

This is the novel I wrote and which Dell (Delacorte is their hardcover branch) put out in hardcover (which was not specified in our contract) and then issued under the name of Collier Young, who had a screenplay written by John [Gregoty] Dunne and his wife [Joan Didion] – from which I made the novelization. The film wasn’t made – and none of us got credit except the man who wasn’t responsible! Again, my contract didn’t specify that my name would appear as the author – but who would expect otherwise? Very Odd!

More novels by Bloch found in his papers.
“This was my first screenplay from a story treatment by Blake Edwards and Owen Crump, who produced it. I was asked to novelize it, and did. Note comments on Hollywood.” – Robert Bloch ‘66
“A strange novel which I hope to do one day as a film” – Robert Bloch
“A novel with a sympathetic and innocent young hero, for a change. Nobody quite believed I wrote it.” – Robert Bloch ‘66
“First publication of Ladies Day anywhere – plus first book publication of my short science fiction novel – This Crowded Earth – written before the ‘population explosion’ was a popular menace” – Robert Bloch

Film

During the decade, Bloch wrote scripts for six theatrical feature films. Among those films were Strait-Jacket (1964), a thriller directed by William Castle and starring Joan Crawford that has retrospectively come to be known as part of the “psycho-biddy” or “hagsploitation” sub-genre. Bloch’s papers include multiple items related to this project: two drafts of his script, call sheets and other documents produced during the making of the film, and several posters advertising the film, including one from Australia and one from Belgium. Also included among these materials are two drawings of sets (a house and a railroad depot) for the film by production designer Boris Leven.

“This is a copy of the final version of Strait Jacket. Stayed with me through casting, rehearsal, shooting and post-production. It includes the actual shooting schedule which follows script. This shows how the film was broken down for production.” – Robert Bloch. Box 251, Bloch papers.

Set designs by Boris Leven for Strait-Jacket. Box 360, Bloch papers.
“Design for ‘Straitjacket’ set by Boris Leven, Academy Award-winning set designer working on my film through production, as I did. I was given the opportunity to study various phases of production techniques – of which set design was one.” – Robert Bloch
“Design for ‘Straitjacket’ set by Boris Levin. During the filming I was constantly amazed at how this ingenious man (who designed ‘West Side Story’ among other films) would create, as in this instance, a realistic railroad depot and environs by using a few sheets of cardboard and proper lighting.” – Robert Bloch

Bloch also wrote the script for another Castle-directed thriller, The Night Walker. As he explained in Once Around the Bloch:

An Australian housewife had sent [director William Castle] an unsolicited screenplay. Storyline, characters, dialogue and setting were all impossible to consider, but Bill was interested in what remained. The basic concept was the dilemma faced by a person who could no longer clearly differentiate between dream and reality.

Included in the collection are a draft of Bloch’s script and Belgian poster promoting the film. Also included is the novelization of the film, which was written by Michael Avallone, using the pseudonym “Sidney Stuart.” (The collection also contains numerous letters written from Avallone to Bloch.)

“I did an original screenplay, which was for The Night Walker (Universal, 1964) and it was novelized, with my permission, by Michael Avalonne [sic], under a pseudonym. Note that I wrote an introduction for this volume.” – Robert Bloch. Box 351, Bloch papers.

Items from The Deadly Bees, a 1967 British horror film based on H.F. Heard’s 1941 novel A Taste for Honey. The original screenplay was by Robert Bloch but was rewritten by Anthony Marriott. Box 249, Bloch papers.

The Psychopath (also known as Schizo) is a 1966 British horror film written by Robert Bloch. It was an Amicus production. Box 251, Bloch papers.
“A writer may approach his screen-play for a certain regard for restraint and good taste – then the advertising department gets in on the act and – see what happens!” Robert Bloch ‘66

“Adapted by me from four of my published short stories – Enoch, Terror over Hollywood, Mr. Steinway, and The Man Who Collected Poe. This is the ‘release script,’ based on the time-study of the edited final print of the film itself. I do not approve, nor am I responsible, for the ‘non-camera’ gore added by the people who made the picture – or for the introduction of a cat into Enoch!” – Robert Bloch. Box 251, Bloch papers.
German adaptation of the film Torture Garden.film
“Three cheers for our side!” – Robert Bloch

The Skull was a 1965 British film based on the short story “The Skull of the Marquis de Sade” by Robert Bloch. Box 365, Bloch papers.
The film was produced by Amicus Productions and released and promoted in the U.S. by Paramount Pictures.

Television

During the 1960s, Bloch wrote scripts for episodes of numerous television series, including Alfred Hitchcock Presents, The Alfred Hitchcock Hour, Lock Up, Thriller, I Spy, Run for Your Life, and The Girl from U.N.C.L.E. He also wrote the scripts for three episodes of the original Star Trek series – “What Are Little Girls Made Of?” (season 1, episode 7, 1966), “Catspaw” (season 2, episode 7, 1967), and “Wolf in the Fold” (season 2, episode 14, 1967).

The latter is of particular interest because it incorporates his concept of Jack the Ripper, from his story “Yours Truly, Jack the Ripper,” which was first published in the July 1943 issue of the pulp magazine Weird Tales. As Bloch explained in his autobiography, this episode was the “result of Dorothy Fontana’s suggestion that I launch my old friend Jack the Ripper into orbit. She provided considerable assistance in the final draft.” The collection contains Bloch’s outline for the episode and multiple drafts of his script. Included with these materials is a note from Bloch expressing his dissatisfaction with the development of the episode.

“Another horrible example teleplay development of Wolf in the Fold showing how 1967 network and studio executives arbitrarily call the tune – and, in this instance, then proceed to change their own directions when they see what they suggest will not work. You might call this a lesson in how not to write a teleplay.” – Robert Bloch
“One over – all problem – a lack of action. This may be partially substituted for by a strong indictment of Scott as the probable killer, + his subsequent jeopardy.” – Robert Bloch. Box 253, Bloch papers.

What the Archive Reveals

The materials from the 1960s in the Robert Bloch papers reveal an author at the height of his creative powers, successfully navigating multiple media in the wake of Psycho’s phenomenal success. From novels that struggled to find their audience to successful collaborations with William Castle, from television scripts for iconic series like Star Trek to the frustrations of uncredited work, these documents capture both the triumphs and challenges of a working writer in Hollywood’s golden age of horror and suspense.

Researchers interested in the evolution of horror and thriller genres, the business of adaptation and novelization, or the intersection of literature and visual media will find rich material for study in Bloch papers. The collection offers not just the finished products of a prolific career, but the drafts, correspondence, and production materials that illuminate the creative process behind some of the era’s most memorable entertainment.

Happy Halloween!

Post contributed by AHC Processing Archivist and resident film expert Roger Simon.

Posted in Adaptations, American Literature, Authors, Biography and profiles, Film History, Hollywood history, Horror, Uncategorized | Tagged 1960s, Alfred Hitchcock, Boris Leven, Horror fiction, Novelization, Psycho, Robert Bloch, Screenwriting, Star Trek, Strait-Jacket, The Night Walker, William Castle, Wolf in the Fold | Leave a comment

Big News: We’re Launching an Education and Outreach Department!

Posted on October 20, 2025 by lwaggen2

We have some really exciting news to share—the American Heritage Center is creating a new Education and Outreach Department.

If you’ve been following along with us, you know we’ve always been about more than just preserving collections. We want people to actually use them, learn from them, and find their own connections to the past. This new department makes that official.

Brigida “Brie” Blasi, 2024. Photo American Heritage Center.

Brie Blasi is heading up the department. If you’ve visited the AHC in the last five years, especially with a school group or for one of our programs, you’ve probably already met her. She’s been our Public History Educator, and she’s been doing a lot of this work already—now she’ll have a whole department behind her to offer even more support.

“The AHC has so many treasures to share,” Brie said. “This new department gives us the chance to welcome more students, teachers, and community members into the world of archives and to show how history speaks to our everyday lives.”

Pretty much everything the Center does is to engage with the community—teaching university classes, hosting school field trips, putting on exhibits, giving lectures—now falls under one umbrella. The idea is to make it easier to connect people with our collections, whether you’re a researcher diving deep into a topic or a curious visitor who just wandered in.

We’ve already hit the ground running with two new exhibits:

“The West is Waiting” looks at how railroads advertised the American West back in the day. Think bold promises and romantic imagery designed to get people to pack up and head west.
“Life Between the Rails” is based on oral histories exploring the history of the Union Pacific Railroad from an employees’ perspective. Real people telling their stories about working on and living near the railroads.

Both will be up through March 6, 2026. After that, we’re planning something special for the 250th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.

Our collections cover everything from Wyoming history to the energy industry, journalism, entertainment, railroads, politics—you name it. We’re one of the largest non-governmental archives in the country, and we want more people to know what’s here.

If you’d like to plan a visit, ask about educational programs, or just have questions, reach out to Brie at bblasi@uwyo.edu or call 307-766-2580.

We’re looking forward to this next chapter.

Visit us online at uwyo.edu/ahc.

Posted in Education & Outreach, exhibits, Uncategorized | Tagged American Heritage Center, Archives, Brie Blasi, Community Engagement, Current Exhibits, Education and Outreach Department, Educational Programs, Life Between the Rails, New Department, Oral History, Public History, Public Programs, Railroad History, School Programs, The West is Waiting, Union Pacific Railroad, University of Wyoming, Wyoming Archives, Wyoming history | 1 Comment

From Dust to Pavement: The Good Roads Movement in Wyoming

Posted on October 13, 2025 by lwaggen2

In the late 19^th and early 20th century, progressive political movements grew in popularity and in the public consciousness. Causes such as women’s suffrage, the temperance movement, and unionization became forefront political issues, and the impacts of these movements are still remembered and felt today. However, one Progressive-Era movement that is not so well remembered, but literally widely felt, was the Good Roads Movement.

The Good Roads movement was framed through a progressive lens that claimed road improvement would help small towns become more connected and would economically benefit rural working-class people such as farmers and ranchers. Wyoming, being a heavily rural state, had its own local Good Roads club chapters and programs. In this post we will look at some of the archival materials held here at the American Heritage Center related to the Good Roads movement in Wyoming.

At the turn of the 19^th century, the cross-country road infrastructure of the United States was still in poor shape compared to what we think of today. While the transcontinental railroad had been in operation since 1869, road and vehicle infrastructure were still far behind. Especially in rural areas such as Wyoming, travel between towns by car would often involve long stretches of driving on dirt roads not designed for vehicles and would often be multiple day affairs including frequent stops and camping beside the road. Those in the Good Roads movement advocated for improved road infrastructure through new road construction, road paving, and road project fundraising.

An example that illustrates the state of road travel during this period is the experience of the 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy in Wyoming. After the experience of the First World War, which saw increasing military mechanization in the use of trucks of tanks over traditional horse drawn transportation, the US Army decided to undertake a series of transcontinental truck convoys to study the feasibility of cross-country movement for defense. The most famous of these convoys departed Washington DC on July 7, 1919, and took 62 days to reach San Francisco.

The convoy passed through Wyoming in August, following roughly the route that Interstate 80 takes today. Demonstrating the state of roads in Wyoming at that time, the convoy took 8 days to cross the state (breaking 14 bridges in the process), entering near Cheyenne on August 9 and departing on August 17 though Evanston, with stops in Cheyenne, Laramie, Rock River, and Medicine Bow. The slow going is illustrated by the August 11^th entry of the convoy:

The Army Motor Convoy east of Cheyenne, 1919. Source: “”East Wyoming” 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy.” Source: https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/1919-transcontinental-motor-convoy

Departed Larmie [sic], 6:30 a.m….. High wind thruout the day. Bridges were generally poor, and 12 wooden bridges were reinforced… Camped on hillside south of Medicine Bow, soil dusty, sand and no water facilities. Made 59 miles in 11 ¾ hrs. Arrived Medicine Bow, Wyo. 6:15 p.m.

One of the military officers in this convoy was a young Dwight Eisenhower, and it has been suggested that his experiences in the 1919 Motor Convoy were a contributing factor to his support for the creation of the Interstate Highway System during his presidential administration. In any case, in its report the Army noted that the publicity generated by the convoy increased support for the Good Roads movement.

Seeking to advocate for the improvement of roads through new road construction, paving existing roads, and fundraising for local road improvements, members of Good Roads clubs took a grassroots approach to achieving their goals. The Good Roads Club of Laramie County appears to have been an active organization, as shown by a draft petition (see below) they made to the Laramie County Commissioners advocating for public investment in the Lincoln Highway between Laramie and Cheyenne as well as the road between Cheyenne and Denver.

Draft Good Roads Petition. Box 1, Roderick N. Matson papers, Coll. No. 00183, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

The ever-active Grace Raymond Hebard also appears to have been active in the Wyoming Good Roads movement, or at least aware of it. In her collection are several articles about the Good Roads movement in Wyoming. One article reports on a State Highway Convention in 1912 that was to be held in Douglas, to “Further Good Roads Movement Throughout the State.” Talks and events were to be held on improving Wyoming’s highways and on the benefits of making the state more connected.

Highway-Good Roads Movement, 1912-1925. Box 8, Folder 18, Grace Raymond Hebard papers, Coll. No. 400008, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Another striking example from Hebard’s papers is a 1920 article from a Jackson newspaper laying out the plans for a public workday for road improvement. It appears that citizens of Jackson were all but conscripted into “Good Roads Day Work.”

Every place of business that can possible close that day has been asked to do so, and practically all have agreed to. And State Game Warden [W. T.] Judkins has proclaimed a closed season on fishing for the day. The Wyoming press is unanimous in stating the sentiment is to brand as a slacker, anyone who does not turn out and do his, or her bit on June 22, unless he or she has a good reason for not doing so. Everybody Expected to Help.”

The article goes on to explain what tools to bring, lunch arrangements, section captains, and more and ends with a proclamation from Grace Miller, Mayor of Jackson “calling upon all able bodies persons to contribute their best efforts in the improvements of our highways.”

Roads, 1914-1917. Box 19, Folder 8, Grace Raymond Hebard papers, Coll. No. 400008, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Attention brought to the issue of Good Roads by grassroots movements such as Good Roads Clubs, public workdays, and larger national events like Transcontinental Motor Convoy all contributed to road improvement projects. With the establishment of the Wyoming Highway Department in 1917, road improvement became increasingly a governmental responsibility, and highway cutting projects no longer needed to be undertaken at a local level. Technological improvements and large-scale projects such as the Interstate Highway System—approved by an Eisenhower who no doubt had memories of the dusty drive across Wyoming and the country—have radically changed our conception of space and distance while travelling.

Next time you drive the one hour—instead of eleven and half—between Laramie and Medicine Bow, spare a thought for the folks of the Good Roads movement.

Post contributed by Marcus Holscher, Toppan Rare Books Library Aide.

Sources

“Daily Log of the First Transcontinental Motor Convoy, Washington, DC to San Francisco, Cal., July 7th to Sept. 6th, 1919” [U.S. Army, Transport Corps, Transcontinental Convoy: Records, 1919, Box 1, Daily log of the first transcontinental motor convoy (typewritten copy); NAID #12166042]

Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library. “1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy.” Accessed May 10, 2025. https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/research/online-documents/1919-transcontinental-motor-convoy.

Highway-Good Roads Movement, 1912-1925, Box 8, Folder 18, Coll. 400008, Grace Raymond Hebard Papers, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

“On Way to West, Government Motor Truck Transport Spends Sunday in Laramie and Hits Trail on Monday,” The Laramie Republican, August 11, 1919.

Resolutions Presented by the Good Roads Club of Laramie County, Wyoming to the Board of County Commissioners of Said County, N.D., Box 1, Folder 5, Coll. 00183, Roderick N. Matson Papers, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Report, from 1st Lt. E.R. Jackson (Ordnance Observer) to Col. L.B. Moody (Ordnance Department, USA, Tank, Tractor & Trailer Division), “Report on First Transcontinental Motor Convoy,” October 31, 1919. [U.S. Army, Transport Corps, Transcontinental Convoy: Records, 1919, Box 1, Report on first transcontinental motor convoy] [U.S. Army, Transport Corps, Transcontinental Convoy: Records, 1919, Box 1, Report on first transcontinental motor convoy; NAID #12165976]

Roads, 1914-1927, Box 19, Folder 8, Coll. 400008, Grace Raymond Hebard Papers, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Posted in Transportation history, Uncategorized, Wyoming history | Tagged 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy, 20th Century, Cheyenne, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Good Roads Movement, Grace Raymond Hebard, Grassroots movements, Highways, Interstate Highway System, Jackson Wyoming, laramie, Laramie County, Lincoln Highway, Medicine Bow, Progressive Era, Road infrastructure | Leave a comment

Breaking the “Grass” Ceiling: Women Ranchers of Wyoming

Posted on October 6, 2025 by lwaggen2

When University of Wyoming graduate student Josie Corbett arrived at the American Heritage Center in 2024 as a Women in Public Life Fellow, she came with a mission: to investigate the “multifaceted contributions of women ranchers in Wyoming to the historical ranching industry.” Her ongoing research through the archives, combined with the Center’s abundant oral history collections, reveals a powerful story of resilience, innovation, and indispensable labor that challenges traditional narratives about who built the American West.

The Invisible Foundation of Ranch Life

Corbett’s research through the AHC’s collections paints a vivid picture of women whose work extended far beyond the domestic sphere, even when it was framed that way. Take Maggie Keyes Williams from the Double X Ranch Family Records, who married at 17 and moved west in 1873. While described by her daughter as a “splendid wife and mother, helping in every way to further the success of her husband,” the reality was far more complex. Maggie milked 30-40 cows daily, produced pounds of butter for her husband to freight, and literally built their home—transforming a log house into a comfortable dwelling through her own efforts.

Toni David grew up mainly in Oregon and Idaho, but her family has deep ties to Wyoming, having homesteaded land in 1912 in the area that would become LaBarge. She has lived in Wyoming her entire adult life. Her interview can be found in Wyoming Women’s History: Choices and Changes Oral History Project, Coll. No. 12882, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

This pattern of essential yet undervalued work emerges throughout ranching oral histories at the AHC. As Toni David, interviewed in 2021, recalled about her ranch experience in the Big Piney area: “Sometimes I was cooking five meals a day, because I would have a haying crew of like 15 men. And then, separate from them, the company had just cowboys hired to take care of the cattle. So, they might show up in the middle of the day for a meal.” Toni also described getting up each morning to make lists of daily tasks: “So, it was a lot of work. But it wasn’t just me doing it. Every cook on those other ranches…had a cook on each ranch. Because at that time, we did cook for the crews.”

Kathy Davison, interviewed in 2022 at her ranch between Kemmerer and Opal, echoed these sentiments about the demanding nature of ranch life: “We started out, Ron made $100 a month from his dad, and our boarding room, we lived here. We started out poor, but we were happy…I liked the sheep more because when Ron wasn’t home I could deliver a lamb pretty easy. A calf was a little harder.”

Care Work as Community Building

Corbett’s analysis reveals how women’s labor functioned as what she calls “care work”—extending beyond immediate tasks to encompass “the physical, emotional, social, and intergenerational well-being of the ranching family.” This care work manifested in countless ways: nurturing family members, managing household and ranching economies, doctoring animals, maintaining infrastructure, and fostering community ties.

AHC oral histories bring this concept to life. Nancy Espenscheid, who grew up on a ranch near Big Piney and later operated her own ranch, described the integrated nature of women’s contributions: “I did a lot of horseback riding. I did all the bookkeeping, the accounting. I drove pickup trucks and did errands…Calving, we helped with calving. I mean, it wasn’t anything that took a genius. It was just somebody that would pay attention and care about the outcome is how I describe it.”

Patricia “Pat” Frolander, Wyoming’s poet laureate (2011 to 2013), at her family ranch in Sundance where she balanced the demanding work of ranching with writing five poetry collections, finding time to craft verses “between the cracks” in the early morning hours before chores or late at night. Interview in Wyoming Women’s History: Choices and Changes Oral History Project.

The community aspect of this care work was crucial. Patricia Frolander, who moved from Boston to a Sundance ranch in 1969, initially struggled with isolation but found that neighboring was essential: “When we’d harvest, the neighbors would get together, we’d do it together. When we branded in the springtime, we did it together—ranch-to-ranch.” She noted sadly in her 2021 interview that “That’s all completely changed now. And that’s a loss to community when that happens.”

Kathy Davison described similar community cooperation with sheep ranching: “We had a lot of nights we had the whole house full of lambs because we had lamb on our land…we had to check on every two hours. Bring them in to warm them up.” The physical intimacy of ranch life meant that caring for animals was inseparable from caring for family.

A Unique Western Equality

Eleanor Stepp Johnston’s experience as a woman of mixed Black and white heritage reveals how ranching communities could transcend social barriers in remarkable ways. Born in 1939 and raised on a ranch her great-grandfather homesteaded along the Green River, Eleanor found acceptance that challenged conventional prejudices: “I’ve never been mistreated because of my race. I feel like, rather, it was looked upon as, ‘Wow. She’s a friend of ours. It doesn’t matter if her skin’s black or blue or purple.’”

Her family was deeply respected—her grandfather held positions as brand inspector, road commissioner, and county assessor because “he had a greater education than most of the white people here.” Her father’s musical family played throughout the region, and when bigots once threatened them, “the locals heard them talking. And those men left town. They were slightly beaten up. But they left town.” Eleanor herself was “included in everything” in school and “served as an officer in every organization,” with family social events often held at their home “because we had a big house…and that’s where the piano was.”

Eleanor Stepp Johnston, Grand Marshal of LaBarge’s Independence Day Parade, celebrating her community contributions with 200 roses—a testament to her lifelong dedication to education, local leadership, and the western Wyoming town where her grandfather homesteaded and her family has lived for generations. Interview in Wyoming Women’s History: Choices and Changes Oral History Project.

Breaking Barriers, Building Futures

Perhaps most significantly, Corbett’s research documents how women actively broke gender barriers while preserving ranching traditions. Patricia Frolander’s experience illustrates this tension perfectly. When she arrived at her first branding as a neighbor, she was told: “Oh, no. The men eat first. We eat second table.” But she persisted, explaining: “And the women were not in the corrals. The women did not ride cattle, they stayed home, and they prepared the meals, raised the children…I broke a lot of barriers here.” Her own mother-in-law predicted she “would never last a year” on the ranch, but that skepticism became motivation: “I’d think about what she said, and I’d think, ‘No, I’ll stick it out.’”

The Cooksley Sisters, Elsie and Amy, documented in the James D. Folger papers at the AHC, exemplified this barrier-breaking spirit. English immigrants who became cowpunchers during World War I, they later owned a ranch near Kaycee and started guiding big game hunters in 1955. By the 1970s, when photographer Jim Folger befriended and wrote about them, they had been hunting guides and ranchers for more than twenty years. Despite their recognized competence—as one neighbor noted, Amy “stood in her tan leather boots, more capable than most men”—they faced challenges securing employment through agencies, revealing persistent biases against women in ranching and guiding roles.

Shown left to right are sisters Elsie Cooksley Lloyd (b. 1897) and Amy Cooksley Chubb (b. 1900). James D. Folger Papers, Coll. No. 12709, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

The Evolution of Recognition

Mary Budd Flitner, author of *My Ranch, Too: A Wyoming Memoir*, on her family’s ranch near Greybull where her husband’s family has ranched since 1906—a fourth-generation operation she “helped sustain through decades of hard work, from horseback cattle work to bookkeeping, embodying her belief that “it’s my ranch too.”

The oral histories reveal changing attitudes over time. Mary Budd Flitner, born in 1942, reflected in 2021 on how expectations for women evolved: “I don’t think we gave as much thought to it as we did just assumed that life would take care of us…We didn’t spend a lot of time talking about what we were going to be. But we were just on the edge of that, because as I went on to college, then girls were talking about the Peace Corps and different advocacy groups.”

Contemporary ranchers like Trudi Julian represent both continuity and change in women’s ranching roles. Operating a major sheep ranch near Kemmerer with her brother, Trudi embodies the hands-on approach that has always characterized ranch women: “I’m a person who likes to see things get done. I’m a doer, you get something done.” Her operation runs “between 9,000 and 10,000 herd of sheep” across vast areas of Wyoming, from “the Bridger National Forest, which is north of Kemmerer” in summer to “the Rock Springs Lease Desert” in winter.

The family legacy continues through the next generation. As Trudi proudly noted: “My daughter that’s working on the ranch, she’s the fifth generation working on this ranch, which is pretty neat.” At 26, her daughter Marie represents the future of an industry where women increasingly take leadership roles.

The Continuing Legacy

The pattern emerges clearly from the archives: women’s care work maintained the working heritage of family ranches across generations. This legacy continues today in ranchers like Trudi Julian, whose family has operated their sheep ranch near Kemmerer for generations. As Trudi proudly noted: “My daughter… she’s the fifth generation working on this ranch, which is pretty neat.” At 26, her daughter represents the future of an industry where women increasingly take the lead.

The oral histories preserve voices that capture this evolution—from Toni David reflecting “I’ve always been able to express my opinion and not suffer for it,” to Patricia Frolander’s transformation: “Within 30 days, I had 17 bum lambs to feed…I was terrified…but three years later, I was so invested in the land and the livestock, our home, I would have never left.”

Eleanor Johnston’s experience demonstrates how ranch communities could transcend barriers: “I love being a woman in Wyoming…I’ve been able to get out there and do things and go places.”

These stories reveal that women were essential to ranching’s creation and evolution. The “grass ceiling” was broken long ago by countless women whose legacy continues in every female agricultural student, every contemporary rancher adapting to modern challenges, and every community sustained by the care work that makes ranching life possible.

The American Heritage Center’s Women in Public Life Fellowship supports research that illuminates women’s contributions to American society. Josie Corbett’s research, along with the Center’s extensive oral history collections, provides crucial documentation of women’s roles in shaping the American West. To learn more about the AHC’s collections or fellowship opportunities, visit uwyo.edu/ahc.

Posted in Agriculture, Oral history, Uncategorized, women's history, Wyoming history | Tagged Agricultural labor, Big Piney, Care work, Cooksley sisters, Eleanor Stepp Johnston, Gender barriers, Josie Corbett, Kaycee, Kemmerer, LaBarge, Mary Budd Flitner, Patricia Frolander, Ranch Life, ranching history, Sundance, Toni David, Women in Public Life Fellowship, Women ranchers, women's history, Women's labor, Wyoming women, Wyoming Women's History Oral History Project | 1 Comment