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The Wonderful Women of Oz

Posted on November 25, 2024 by ahcadmin

With the recent premiere of the long-awaited movie adaptation of Gregory Maguire’s book, Wicked, there is much talk about not only Glinda and Elphaba, two of Oz’s most famous witches, but also the larger Wizard of Oz universe. While we know a lot about Glinda, Elphaba, and Dorothy Gale, we do not hear as much about the other woman in the land of Oz.

Many Oz character studies have been done, including on the women, that look at their journeys and transformations throughout the book series. This blog post explores a few of the characters and their written adventures found in the collections of the Toppan Rare Books Library. Scholars have noted the way in which the women Oz characters often challenge traditional female gender roles, and this is perhaps one of the primary reasons the characters remain popular and relevant. Many of the women of Oz encompass one of the overarching themes of the series: following the path to find your way and being true to yourself along the journey.

L. Frank Baum, *Ozma of Oz*, 1907, Fitzhugh Collection, Toppan Rare Books Library.

Introduced in The Marvelous Land of Oz from 1904, Ozma was the rightful ruler of Oz. She began her journey as a fairy woman and the daughter of King Pastoria, King of Oz before the Wizard’s arrival. The Wizard overthrew King Pastoria upon his arrival, forcing Pastoria to go into hiding and leave his baby daughter behind. The Wizard, paranoid that Ozma would grow up and try to reclaim the throne, gave the baby girl to an evil witch named Mombi. Mombi turned Ozma into a boy named Tip in hopes that she wouldn’t remember ever having been a girl and that neither she nor the inhabitants of Oz would recognize Tip as Pastoria’s child. This worked for about fourteen years, until Tip escaped Mombi’s clutches and ventured into Oz.

Tip and Jack Pumpkinhead. L. Frank Baum, *The Marvelous Land of Oz*, 1904, Fitzhugh Collection, Toppan Rare Books Library.

L. Frank Baum, *The Marvelous Land of Oz*, 1904, Fitzhugh Collection, Toppan Rare Books Library.

After using the “powder of life” to bring Jack Pumpkinhead and the Sawhorse to life, Tip ran away from an enraged Mombi. He and his magical creations encountered the Tin Woodman, the Scarecrow – the new King of Oz since the Wizard was gone – and finally, Glinda, the Good Witch of the South.

After a pursuit of Mombi, Glinda finally discovered that Tip was Ozma all along. Tip was initially shocked and scared to discover that he had always been Ozma and frets that his friends will no longer like him if he is a girl. The Tin Woodman reassured the child: “It don’t hurt to be a girl I’m told; and we will all remain your faithful friends just the same. And, to be honest with you, I’ve always considered girls nicer than boys.” Reassured, she reluctantly allowed Glinda to transform her back into Ozma. “I might try it for a while, just to see how it seems, you know. But if I don’t like being a girl you must change me into a boy again.” Glinda reassures her that “no respectable sorceress likes to make things appear to be what they are not,” but agreeing that she will honor Ozma’s wishes. Tip transformed into an ethereal, fairylike princess with long hair and wore. a crown with the Oz insignia and a flowy white gown.

Fortunately, Ozma quite liked being a girl and ruling over Oz. When Dorothy Gale returns to Oz after the events in The Marvelous Land of Oz, she and Ozma became close friends. After Dorothy learned of her family’s financial troubles, Ozma allowed Aunt Em and Uncle Henry to stay as “permanent guests.” Ozma’s role in the series underscores the importance of friendship, generosity, and staying true to yourself.

Betsy Bobbin

At the beginning of The Tik-Tok of Oz (1914), a little Midwestern farm girl and her barnyard companion were swept away to Oz after a major weather event. You would be forgiven for thinking that the girl in question is Dorothy Gale, the heroine of the Oz series, but you would be mistaken.

In the 1910s, L. Frank Baum’s Oz stories received several profitable stage adaptations – most notably, Fred R. Hamlin’s musical adaptation. To stage these productions, Baum contracted his characters out to different writers and producers, rendering them un-useable for other Oz adaptations. So, when producers approached Baum for a stage adaptation of Ozma of Oz (1907), the Royal Historian of Oz found himself struggling to adapt the story due to the contractual difficulties regarding his Wizard of Oz characters – including Dorothy. Baum pivoted and authored a new play called The Tik-Tok Man of Oz. The play was scheduled for 1913 and introduced a new protagonist: a teenage girl named Betsy.

The characters were different, but still somewhat similar in various ways. Betsy Bobbin is from Oklahoma, differing from Dorothy being from Kansas. Dorothy’s companions were a dog named Toto and a chicken named Billina, and Betsy Bobbin had a mule named Hank. Dorothy arrived in Oz in a cyclone, while Betsy arrived during a sea storm. The finer details have been changed, but the stories were the same. The very few differences between Dorothy and Betsy were intentional since Baum simply needed a lead role for his new play.

L. Frank Baum, *The Tik-Tok of Oz*, 1914, Fitzugh Collection, Toppan Rare Books Library.

After the success of the play, The Tik-Tok Man of Oz, Baum decided to turn it into a proper book, keeping Betsy as the protagonist instead of Dorothy. Betsy does pop-up from time to time in the Oz books – mostly as a friend to Dorothy and Ozma – but ultimately remained a Dorothy stand-in. Ruth Plumly Thompson, the author who took on the role of Royal Historian of Oz after Baum’s death, used Betsy’s character more often, even granting her the title of Princess in the later novels.

General Jinjur

During Tip’s journey through Oz in The Marvelous Land of Oz, he encountered an all-female feminist militia called the Army of Revolt. This army was led by a General named Jinjur. Despite being a native Munchkin, Jinjur was a pretty girl of average size with blue eyes and a short, blonde bob. Jinjur became radicalized after watching men exclusively ruling over Oz and the Emerald City for too long. She believed it’s a woman’s chance to take power.

Due to the events of The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and the Wizard’s departure, there was ample opportunity for her to rule. The Scarecrow had replaced the Wizard as the ruler of the Emerald City and there was no other known rightful monarch. Jinjur wanted to take advantage of this unstable power vacuum and staged a coup against the Scarecrow. After successfully enslaving the men and boys of the Emerald City and looting all its wealth, she enlisted the help of Mombi and her magic. “Girls! We are about to begin our great revolt against the men of Oz! … and to obtain power over our former oppressors!”, Jinjur says during her short stint as Queen.

Once Mombi was discovered as having hidden Ozma, both Mombi and Jinjur were captured. Fortunately, Glinda and Ozma took mercy on Jinjur and her army. Jinjur requested that she and the soldiers be allowed to return to their families and promised to behave. It helped that, after the revolt, the Scarecrow agreed that he should no longer be King of Oz, and Ozma ascended the throne, which resulted in what Jinjur had always wanted—a female ruler for Oz and the Emerald City.

In Ozma of Oz (1907), we learn that Jinjur had settled down, gotten married, and was running a dairy farm with her husband. This was likely disappointing for some readers, but Baum was sure to clarify that Jinjur “wears the pants” in her marriage and that she took on a great deal of the physical labor in the home. When we meet her again in The Tin Woodman of Oz (1918), she was still wearing her Army of Revolt uniform on the farm. Jinjur’s character arc turned her from a radical to a generous, kind, and calm individual, though she never abandoned her values and belief in women’s rights.

L. Frank Baum, *The Tin Woodman of Oz*, 1918, Fitzhugh Collection, Toppan Rare Books Library.

While certain aspects of Jinjur’s character have not aged well, scholars have interpreted Jinjur’s inclusion in Oz to be a friendly satire rather than a rebuke of the women’s suffrage movement. Baum was both a supporter of women’s rights and directly involved in the movement.

One of the most significant women in the Oz universe is not a fictional character. L. Frank Baum’s mother-in-law, Matilda Joslyn Gage, is cited as being pivotal in her encouragement of Baum’s Oz series. Gage lived in Baum’s Chicago house along with her daughter, Maud, during her later years of life. Following her advice, L. Frank Baum wrote down the fanciful stories of Dorothy and her adventures in Oz creating a book series that has spawned numerous movies, book adaptations, and entertained generations of children and adults.

*History of Woman Suffrage*, Vol 1, 1896. Coe Post-1850, Toppan Rare Books Library.

Much like the Oz characters, Matilda Joslyn Gage’s life was filled with adventures and like Jinjur, she fought for the advancement of women and others. Matilda Joslyn was born in 1826 in Cicero, New York to her parents Dr. Hezekiah and Helen Joslyn. Matilda grew up around books and was encouraged to expand her knowledge in a myriad of subjects from a young age by her father. She also witnessed both her parents work and support contemporary issues like the abolitionist and temperance movements. According to a biographical note in volume 1 of History of Woman Suffrage (1896), the family home in New York was a stop along the Underground Railroad. Following the example of her parents, Gage became involved in the burgeoning women’s rights movement.

Gage was a prolific writer, and her words are found throughout significant documents and publications of the suffrage movement, including the Declaration of Sentiments (1848) that was signed at the first women’s rights convention in Seneca Falls. As the movement progressed, Gage’s thoughts regarding the negative effects of the church and her views that all people, regardless of race, should have the right to vote led her to break away from activists like Susan B. Anthony and others aligned with the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

Although she died in 1898 and did not live to see the publication and success of Baum’s Oz world, there are several nods to Gage and her activism in the books. It is somewhat fitting that Glinda, the Good Witch is said to be based on Gage. Her character harkens back to witchcraft and how it was often used as a tool to oppress women, a topic that Gage explored in her 1893 work, Women, Church and State. Gage’s involvement in the movement was alluded to in a facetious way in Baum’s satirical interpretation of women activists. Considering the connections between Matilda Joslyn Gage and L. Frank Baum, the Oz storylines and their women characters seem a most fitting dedication to Baum’s mother-in-law and his appreciation of her and her life’s work.

The women of Oz encompassed many of the ideals and values of the late 19th and early 20th century. While much attention is focused on the stories and adventures of these women, these characters and their real-life inspirations add intrigue and complexity to the wonderful world of Oz.

Post contributed by Toppan Library’s intern Rhiannon Skye McLean and curator Mary Beth Brown.

For more information on Matilda Joslyn Gage and the women of Oz, check out these resources:

Massachi, Dina Schiff. The Characters of Oz: Essays on Their Adaptation and Transformation. McFarland & Company, Inc., 2023.
Paquet, Laura Byrne. “Matilda Joslyn Gage: The suffragist who defied the US government.” BBC, 2023.
Schwartz, Evan I. “Matilda Joslyn Gage- The Unlikely Inspiration for the Wizard of Oz.” History.net, 2009.
Jordan, Jamie. “The Radical Feminist Behind the Curtain.” Ms. Magazine, 2021.

Posted in Advocacy and Activism, American Literature, Authors, Authors and literature, Uncategorized, women's history, Women's suffrage | Tagged Betsy Bobbin, Book illustrations, Children's literature, Dorothy Gale, Fantasy Literature, Female characters, Fitzhugh collection, General Jinjur, L. Frank Baum, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Oz Books, Ozma, Toppan Rare Books Library, Wicked, Wizard of Oz | 1 Comment

A Wyoming Thanksgiving: Traditions and Memories from the Archives

Posted on November 18, 2024 by ahcadmin

Warm Thanksgiving wishes from the American Heritage Center to you and your loved ones!

We’re excited to share a collection of treasured Thanksgiving memories preserved in our archives. In the spirit of Thanksgiving, we’re spotlighting cherished memories from Wyoming’s past, preserved in papers of Grace Raymond Hebard, Lora Webb Nichols, and John Stephen and Frances Jennings Casement. We would also like to highlight longstanding traditions across the country that Wyomingites have participated in.

We begin with memories made on Thanksgiving in the territory of Wyoming. Twenty-four years before Wyoming became a state, a wife penned a note to her husband, detailing her day, and briefly mentions how she and their family spent the day of thanksgiving. She wrote on November 29th, 1866:

[O]ne Thanksgiving has passed like all other days- Pa spoke of going to church last evening- but when morning came he seemed to have made up his mind to go to work and has been hard at it all day. The rest of us have stayed close at home. You and I were invited to the party at the Seminary tonight- but of course I can’t go for I have no beau … I am much better of my cold but not entirely over it. Little John keeps well and grows finely. I can see him grow every day- and he is right handsome too I think, he is good natured and giggles at everybody that looks at him.¹

This letter is from the John Stephen (known as “Jack”) and Frances (“Frank”) Jennings Casement papers and was written by Frank to her husband while he oversaw the construction of Union Pacific Railroad tracks, which traversed what is now southern Wyoming. The letter provides a glimpse into the daily lives of a family often separated by Jack’s railroad career, even during holidays. Frank goes on to mention visits from other women in the community, and a possible trip to the grave of the son they lost the year prior. She describes her continued grief over the loss of a child, and implores her husband to return home soon, because she missed him. Frank also attempts to balance the letter between joy and sorrow, to keep her husband’s spirits high while away from the family. This rather quiet observation of the day of thanksgiving differs from the other collections highlighted here, which make a much larger emphasis on the day.

In 1928, the Thanksgiving declaration by Wyoming Governor Frank C. Emerson encouraged the longstanding tradition of celebrating Thanksgiving in the United States and extols some of the history of the day, as well as encouraged the people of Wyoming to pause and give their thanks as is tradition. The proclamation reads as follows:

Since Pilgrim fathers first paused in their stern pursuit of livelihood to give thanks…for the simple blessings that had come to them through the year, the people of America have observed Thanksgiving as a great national festival…This year of 1928 has witnessed progress throughout our broad land in greater measure than ever before. In our own beloved state of Wyoming the harvest has been bountiful, labor has been plentiful, and the material wellbeing of our citizens has been greatly advanced. Well it is that at this season, …we should again set that day apart on which to take time from our busy daily pursuits of work and pleasure to gauge the manifold blessings that the year has brought to us…²

The proclamation above can be found in the Grace Raymond Hebard papers at the American Heritage Center, along with other thanksgiving proclamations and reactions to proclamations issued by state governors and the President of the United States between 1913 and 1930. Many of these proclamations describe the state of Wyoming, or the Union, before giving reasons to give thanks that year. Most often thanks are given in praise of jobs or plentiful crops, and a bright future for the children of the state. Such as the proclamation made by President Coolidge, pictured below, given in the same year as Governor Emerson’s.

“President Coolidge Proclaims Thanksgiving,” Box 18, Folder 8, Grace Raymond Hebard papers, University of Wyoming, American Heritage Center, Coll. No. 400008.

While the selections from Grace Raymond Hebard’s papers highlighted here include more of a state and national viewpoint of the Thanksgiving holiday, the Lora Webb Nichols papers provide a glimpse of ordinary family life. Nichols, an early 20th century photographer, captured the domestic, social, and economic aspects of life in Encampment, Wyoming. In 1935, she moved to California for health reasons and worked at the Stockton Children’s Home, eventually becoming its director. In her collection, there is an image of a table set for Thanksgiving dinner, shown below. The image is taken November 25th, 1943, at the children’s home. It shows a long table with many seats set elegantly for the first course with dishes and pitchers waiting off to the side for further courses. This table could be reminiscent of those being set all over Wyoming and the United States for this year’s Thanksgiving feast.

Box 14, negative #14462, Lora Webb Nichols papers, Coll. No. 01005, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Also found in the Nichols papers are a series of photographs of Lora and friends at a Thanksgiving dinner party in 1958. By this time, Lora had moved back home to Encampment. One image, shown below, depicts Lora and friends and family at her family home, Willow Glen. Pictured in the image with her are Al Hovey, Nancy, Bill Wilson, her daughter Vera and Faye. Lora and her friends are all dressed up, seated around another elegantly set table after the meal has begun. Again, the scene is reminiscent of many current Thanksgiving traditions, including dressing up and sharing the day with friends and family.

Box 16, negative #17642, Lora Webb Nichols papers, Coll. No. 01005, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Images like those in Lora’s collection don’t look too different from what people have shared on Thanksgiving across social media in the age of the internet. Other images commonly shared are those from iconic celebrations like the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade held in New York City. Marching bands across the country compete to earn a spot in this famous event, travel to the city and perform on the parade route to enormous crowds. For example, the state of Wyoming has been represented by the Wyoming All State Marching Band at many parades like this over the years. In 1994 and 2012 they represented the state at the Macy’s parade. And in other years they have performed in Thanksgiving parades in Hawaii (2008 and 2014) and Philadelphia (2018).

“Wyoming All State Marching Band at Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade,” November 2012. Image from Wyoming All State Marching Band Facebook page.

Whether your Thanksgiving tradition involves gathering around an elegantly set table or cheering on a parade, you are part of a legacy that stretches across generations. From the American Heritage Center, we wish you a Thanksgiving filled with warmth, gratitude, and cherished memories.

Post contributed AHC Processing Archivist Brittany Heye.

To see other examples of Lora Webb Nichols’ photography, visit our Virmuze exhibit “Lora Webb Nichols,” which features 16 photographs from her collection of more than 23,000 images documenting life in Encampment, Wyoming, from 1899 onward.

References

University of Wyoming, American Heritage Center, John Stephen and Frances Jennings Casement Papers, Accession Number 308, Box 1, Folder 3 (use copies in Box 1A).
“Thanksgiving Proclaimed,” University of Wyoming, American Heritage Center, Grace Raymond Hebard Papers, Accession Number 400008, Box 18, Folder 8.

Posted in Holidays, Uncategorized, Wyoming history | Tagged Calvin Coolidge, Casement family, Family letters, Frank C. Emerson, Grace Raymond Hebard, Historical Holidays, Historical Photography, Lora Webb Nichols, Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, Sports, Thanksgiving, Wyoming All State Marching Band | Leave a comment

Little House on the Prairie

Posted on November 11, 2024 by ahcadmin

This western historical television drama was based on bestselling books by Laura Ingalls (1867-1957). NBC picked it up 50 years ago in 1974 and the television series ran until March 21, 1983.

This western historical television drama was based on bestselling books by Laura Ingalls. Audiences were typically in awe of the show and how it represented ‘life out west’ and enlightened the viewer with what was, to many European Americans, the unexplored expanse of our country. Many also agree that the daily life lessons tackled in each episode remained just as relevant to viewers when the series aired in the 1970s and 1980s as they were to the time period in which the show was set.

Box 32, folder 1, Clarice Whittenburg papers, Coll. No. 400066, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

The American Heritage Center maintains several collections that include materials relating to Little House on the Prairie. Although there are maps, illustrations and photographs in some, the vast majority are NBC scripts of the television series. One of these scripts, “Blind Justice,” deals with Mary’s disability and can easily apply to modern day issues with impairments.¹

Carrie, Mary & Laura Ingalls, Box 32, folder 1, Clarice Whittenburg papers, Coll. No. 400066, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

In the television episode titled, “The Happiest Anniversary” the all too familiar scenario of finding a little time away from the children to have a moment with your spouse is addressed. In quite a humorous way, the story is told where Pa & Ma are to spend a whole night alone while the children are with the Reverend and his wife. Between chores, torrential rain, a leaky roof (in the bedroom, of course) and Pa’s coat on fire, morning arrives with the children returned and all are headed to church. As they pull away from the house, Ma & Pa “…turn to each other, noses almost touching. ‘Happy Anniversary!’ Pa says softly…” and they head to town.²

“Pa & Ma” were Charles Phillip and Caroline Lake (née Quiner) Ingalls, Clarice Whittenburg papers, Coll. No. 400066, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Scripts also included are, “The Handyman,” “Meet Me at the Fair,” “I Remember, I Remember,” and “The Pride of Walnut Grove.” The latter stems from a story from an idea by Michael Landon in May of 1975. This episode approaches the ever-present family dynamic of sibling rivalry. Mary becomes eligible to compete in a regional math competition in Minneapolis. The family cannot afford the overall cost, so the townspeople finance the trip. Although Laura admittedly is jealous of Mary, she takes on additional responsibility around the house when Pa suggests it to “…snap her out of her sadness.” The episode also covers Mary’s disappointment in herself as she places second in the competition.³

Charles P. Ingalls’ claim shanty, where Pa built the extra room for the organ, Box 32, folder 1, Clarice Whittenburg papers, Coll. No. 400066, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Laura was very adamant about telling her stories correctly as they occurred and as she experienced her childhood. Even into early adulthood, Laura would write that, “I lived everything that happened in my books. It is a long story, filled with sunshine and shadow…” She also writes about family and friends and what they went on to do and where they lived. “Ma & Pa lived…on their homestead and then moved into town…Mary graduated from the College for the Blind…Carrie worked for the DeSmet News…and then she married…and moved to the Black Hills. Nellie Oleson went east, married, and moved to Louisiana….” It was important to Laura that she leave an accurate and significant legacy. She closes her letter to her daughter with, “The way we live and schools…are much different now. But the real things haven’t changed. It is still best to be honest and truthful; to make the most of what we have; to be happy with simple pleasures and to…have courage when things go wrong. “…every American has always been free to pursue…happiness.”⁴

Post contributed by Vicki Glantz, AHC Reference Department.

Laura & Almanzo Wilder at their golden wedding anniversary in 1935, Box 32, folder 1, Clarice Whittenburg papers, Coll. No. 400066, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

References

Final Draft: December 1980, box 32, folder 5, James Brodhead papers, Coll. No. 7389, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.
Revised Outline from June 17, 1974, box 4, folder 2, Arthur Heinemann papers, Coll. No. 7207, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.
Outline & notes, Michael Landon, 1975, box 4, folder 6, Arthur Heinemann papers, Coll. No. 7207, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.
Composite letter written by Laura Ingalls Wilder, box 8, folder 19, Clarice Whittenburg papers, Coll. No. 400044, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Posted in American West, Entertainment history, Literature, television history, Uncategorized | Tagged 1970s Television, 1980s Television, American Heritage Center, Archives, Family Programming, Historical Collections, Historical Drama, Ingalls Family, Laura Ingalls Wilder, Little House on the Prairie, Michael Landon, NBC Television, Pioneer life, Television Adaptations, Television Scripts, Western Literature | 8 Comments

Revitalizing Indigenous Languages at the Archive: The American Heritage Center and the Arapaho Language

Posted on November 4, 2024 by ahcadmin

November marks Native American Heritage Month, a time to honor the rich cultures, traditions, and histories of Native communities. In celebration, the American Heritage Center is spotlighting collections that support the revitalization of Indigenous languages, particularly the Arapaho language, through the archives. By preserving and sharing these invaluable resources, the AHC contributes to ongoing efforts to keep these languages alive. Among the valuable resources housed at the AHC are the Zdeněk Salzmann Arapaho Indian research papers, the Wyoming Folklife Archive, and the John Roberts papers. Each of these collections offers unique tools for re-discovering and teaching the Arapaho language.

These three collections contain a variety of tools and resources that enable the revitalization of the Arapaho language. For example, the Salzmann papers contain English to Arapaho dictionary cards that are broken up alphabetically and contain many words translated from English to Arapaho. The example below is the “antelope” card from box 18 of the collection.

Box 18-Letter A, Zdeněk Salzmann Arapaho Indian Research Papers, Coll. No. 10396.

Salzmann’s collection also contains musical performances and interviews with members of the Arapaho tribe concerning their language and culture. The 21 reel-to-reel and 92 audio cassette tapes can be used to help develop an understanding of the language, the culture, and provide a place to start learning the language.

The records of the Wyoming Folklife Archive contain documents related to Arapaho language classes that have been developed, materials related to an Arapaho language camp, as well as a copy of the famous Disney movie, Bambi translated into Arapaho.

In 1994, Dr. Steve Greymoming, a professor of Native American Studies and Anthropology at the University of Montana, worked with the Walt Disney Corporation and Wyoming Indian Schools to create a dubbed copy of the iconic Disney movie into Arapaho. Dr. Greymoming led the translation efforts with assistance from students and staff at Wyoming Indian Schools. Arapaho actors then spoke the translated dialogue, leaving only the music in English. This project premiered in November of 1994 and Disney provided the Arapaho nation with 2,000 VHS tapes of the movie. In October of 2022, this version of the film was added to Disney’s streaming service, Disney+. Bambi became the first Disney movie to be dubbed in a Native American language and became another tool in revitalizing the language.

The John Roberts papers contain material regarding Roberts’ mission work on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming. Roberts was an Episcopalian missionary who in 1883 was sent to the reservation to work among the Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho Indians and to organize missions among the white settlers in the adjacent territory.

While at his post, Roberts translated many of the biblical texts and church materials into the Arapaho and Shoshone languages with assistance from Michael Whitehawk, Fremont Arthur, and Charles Lajoe. While these documents were created to help anglicize the Native population, researchers and linguists have begun to utilize them to re-discover and revitalize the Arapaho language. For example, Roberts’ papers contain a document of Arapaho words listed on a few sheets of paper, page four of which is depicted below. This list can teach the language without religious connotations, like many of the other texts in the collection.

Box 1, Folder 17, John Roberts papers, Coll. No. 00037

These three collections are a small sampling of what the AHC holds that could help in the efforts to revitalize the Arapaho language. Archives possess a wealth of materials that can be utilized to rediscover and revitalize Native American languages. By nature, they hold historical recordings, documents and other materials that can be used to teach endangered languages. Modern language revitalization efforts often involve close partnerships between archivists, linguists, and tribal communities to ensure responsible access and respectful use of archived materials. Archives involved in these types of include the American Philosophical Society and the California Language Archive.

Projects like these have also led to the creation of the Indigenous Language Digital Archive. A project where multiple tribes can access and contribute to a digital repository of their languages, allowing for broader collaboration and knowledge sharing. Similarly, the California Language Archive (CLA) at the University of California, Berkley, “holds one of the nation’s largest repositories of Indigenous American language materials. For most of the archive’s history, however, these materials were largely inaccessible to tribal members. With National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) funding, the CLA has been able to digitize most of its collection, making it much easier for tribal communities to make use of those materials in their language revitalization efforts.” [1] These projects highlight the success of digitization efforts in the archive and display the benefits of digitizing records.

Archivists and archives, however, have access to and contain materials that are sensitive to native people and their culture. As such, archives involved in revitalization efforts have worked to ensure that sensitive materials can only be accessed by authorized individuals and respect tribal sovereignty and cultural information. They have also had to address potential biases in their collection material, as it may have been collected by non-native researchers. The University of Nebraska Press published a book of essays in 2021 titled Indigenous Languages and the Promise of Archives.[2] This collection of essays discusses the impact and the roles that the archive has played in, and could continue to play, in revitalization efforts.

The American Heritage Center is proud to contribute to the preservation and revitalization of Indigenous languages. As we continue to digitize more of these invaluable resources, we invite researchers, tribal members, and anyone interested in linguistic heritage to explore our collections and join in the effort to keep these languages alive.

Supporting Wyoming’s Indian Education for All

The AHC’s work in Arapaho language revitalization, the Center’s K-5 Teaching Resources – Indigenous Tribes of Wyoming exhibit, and our extensive archival holdings serve as valuable resources for educators implementing Wyoming’s Indian Education for All mandate.

These primary source materials—including photographs, documents, manuscripts, and more related to Wyoming’s Northern Arapaho and Eastern Shoshone tribes—are available through digitized resources, online exhibits, and with assistance from Reference Department staff to help teachers educate students about the cultural heritage, history, and contributions of Wyoming’s tribal nations while supporting Wyoming Social Studies Standards.

For more information about using the Center’s resources, contact the AHC’s Reference Department at ahcref@uwyo.edu.

Post contributed by AHC Processing Archivist Brittany Heye.

[1] NEH For All, “Making Language Archives Accessible.” Accessed Nov. 1, 2024.

[2] Link, Adrianna, Abigail Shelton, and Patrick Spero, “Indigenous Languages and the Promise of Archives” from the New Visions in Native American and Indigenous Studies series, University of Nebraska Press, 2021.

Posted in Archival preservation, Digital Resources, Indigenous Peoples, Language Preservation, Native American Heritage Month, Uncategorized | Tagged American Heritage Center, American Philosophical Society, Arapaho language, Bambi (1994 Arapaho version), California Language Archive, Cultural Preservation, Digitization, Disney, Dr. Steve Greymoming, Indigenous education, Indigenous language archives, Indigenous Language Digital Archive, Indigenous Languages and the Promise of Archives, John Roberts, Language documentation, Language revitalization, Linguistic heritage, Missionary records, Oral History, Wind River Reservation, Wyoming, Wyoming Folklife Archive, Zdenek Salzmann | Leave a comment

Psycho: Robert Bloch’s Modest Masterpiece

Posted on October 28, 2024 by ahcadmin

Author Robert Bloch (1917-1994) wrote, over the course of more than five decades, novels, stories, essays, and scripts for film and television.

Best known for his novel Psycho, which was adapted into a feature film by director Alfred Hitchcock in 1960, Bloch wrote stories in the genres of horror, crime, science fiction, and fantasy.

Robert Bloch shown on the book jacket of *Psycho*, which was later adapted into the Alfred Hitchcock film. Robert Bloch papers.

The American Heritage Center recently completed the processing of his papers (233 cubic feet!), and in this first blog post, we focus on his early life and his novel Psycho.

Born in Chicago, Bloch moved with his family to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1929. Bloch had, as he described it in a 1949 autobiographical article, “a disgustingly normal” childhood.

As a child, he was particularly taken with the silent cinema, especially Lon Chaney in The Phantom of the Opera (1925). In his 1993 autobiography, Once Around the Bloch, Bloch said, “When I ran all the way home through the dark after the film ended, the image that floated behind me was the phantom’s face. He kept me company in bed and haunted my dreams.”

By 1958, Bloch had published several novels, including The Scarf, The Kidnaper, and The Will to Kill, as well as numerous short stories in pulp magazines such as Amazing Stories, Ellery Queen’s Mystery Magazine, Fantastic Adventures, and Weird Tales. Bloch described himself at that time as “forty-one…[o]ver the hill now, for sure; ready to descend into middle age.” Yet, it was that same year that he began writing Psycho. Inspired by Wisconsin serial killer Ed Gein*, whose crimes were discovered in 1957, Bloch later wrote:

I based my story on the situation, rather than on any person, living or dead, involved in the Gein Affair; indeed, I knew very little of the details concerning that case and virtually nothing about Gein himself at the time. It was only some years later, when writing my essay on Gein…that I discovered how closely the imaginary character I’d created resembled the real Ed Gein both in overt act and apparent motivation.

Soon after the novel was published in 1959, Bloch received an anonymous offer for the purchase of the movie rights to his novel. The price was $9,500, and, as Bloch described it:

My agent got ten percent, my publishers took fifteen, the tax people skimmed off their share of the loot, and I ended up with about $6,250. Hitchcock got Psycho, and the rest is history. Ancient history, really, yet people have never forgotten his brilliant film. And today, more than thirty years later [1993], the novel is still in print.**

A theatrical poster promoting the US release of the movie *Psycho* (1960). The poster credits neither Bloch nor his novel as the source material. Bloch’s note on the back of the poster states, “Question: Who wrote this story? Hitchcock [the director]? Stefano [the screenwriter]? Paramount [the studio]?” Box 365, Robert Bloch papers, Coll. No. 2256.

The Robert Bloch papers includes numerous items related to Psycho, both the novel and the movie. Bloch’s novel has been translated into many foreign languages and published throughout the world. The collection includes translations into French, German, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Finnish, and Japanese, as well as American and British English-language editions.

Japanese
Spanish
Dutch
British
Italian
Finnish
German
U.S.

Also included are English- and foreign-language editions of Bloch’s two sequels, Psycho II and Psycho House, as well as a promotional towel that Warner Books created for the publication of Psycho II.

The collection also includes a copy of the contract between Bloch and Shamley Productions, Hitchcock’s production company, for the movie rights to the novel.

The first page of a copy of the contract between Robert Bloch and Shamley Productions, Inc., Alfred Hitchcock’s production company, for the movie rights to Bloch’s novel *Psycho*. Box 350, Robert Bloch papers, Coll. No. 2256.

There are also stills, posters, and lobby cards from the movie.

A theatrical poster promoting the Belgian release of the movie *Psycho*. Bloch’s note on the poster states, “Belgian ‘one-sheet’ of ‘Psycho’ – made to look like a sex-film.” Box 351, Robert Bloch papers, Coll No. 2256.

A still from the movie Psycho (1960). Bloch’s note on the back of the still says, “Here is a still from Alfred Hitchcock’s production of my novel, Psycho. To date, the film, which was produced for around $900,000, has grossed in the neighborhood of $17,000,000.00 – thus becoming the 2^nd largest all-time money-maker in black-and-white films, topped in this category only by The Birth of a Nation, which has been around for 52 years, according to trade-paper reports. The film, which was adapted by Joseph Stefano, follows the novel faithfully – at least 90%, by a fair estimate – even to the ‘tag-line’ at the end.” Box 351, Robert Bloch papers, Coll. No. 2256.

In later blog posts, we will cover Robert Bloch’s work in film and television, as well as the magazines, pulp and otherwise, that he contributed to and collected.

Happy Halloween!

*Gein was also the partial inspiration for the character Leatherface in the 1974 movie The Texas Chainsaw Massacre and the character Buffalo Bill in the 1988 novel and the 1991 movie The Silence of the Lambs.

**It is worth noting that more than thirty years after Bloch wrote the above passage, Psycho is still in print and available as an e-book.

Post contributed by AHC Processing Archivist and resident film expert Roger Simon.

Posted in American Literature, Author Profiles, Film History, Horror Literature, Literary History, Uncategorized | Tagged 1960s films, Alfred Hitchcock, American Heritage Center, Book contracts, Book translations, Ed Gein, Film rights, Halloween, Horror authors, Horror fiction, Horror novels, Literary adaptations, Literary archives, Lon Chaney, Milwaukee writers, Psycho, Pulp Fiction, Robert Bloch, Shamley Productions, Weird Tales | Leave a comment

Rural Roads and Mail-In Ballots: Wyoming’s Evolution of Absentee Voting

Posted on October 21, 2024 by ahcadmin

Wyoming is a state with a long history of absentee voting and a reputation for high voter participation, and the League of Women Voters of Wyoming has played an influential role in enabling both. Since at least the 1940s in Wyoming, the nonpartisan League has been a champion of voting and political education.

League of Women Voters of Wyoming flyer. Box 37, folder 7, League of Women Voters of Wyoming records, Collection No. 10437, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

In the 1980s, the Casper League was particularly interested in elections conducted by mail, preparing a report on the topic. It outlined the history of vote-by-mail experiments in Oregon, California, Washington, Kansas and Montana. The focus then was on vote by mail for special elections, where voting was to be conducted exclusively and entirely by mail (the polls were not open at all during a special election in those states). More recently, vote-by-mail and absentee voting, as an alternative to going to the polls on election day, have been in the news.

Page of an “Election by Mail” report prepared by the League of Women Voters of Casper. Box 21, folder 11, League of Women Voters of Wyoming records, Collection No. 10437, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

The debate over vote-by-mail took center stage during the 2020 presidential election, largely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Social distancing measures and concerns about large gatherings led many states to expand their mail-in voting programs. Proponents of mail-in voting argue that it makes voting more accessible, especially for individuals who cannot vote in person due to health concerns, disabilities, or work commitments.

However, critics argue that mail-in voting is vulnerable to fraud and abuse. They point to isolated cases of voter fraud, ballot harvesting, and logistical challenges in counting mail-in votes. The debate over mail-in voting continues, with several states enacting stricter voting laws, while others are making it easier to vote by mail.

Absentee voting in Wyoming has been available since at least the mid-20th century. In the 1950s, absentee voting was primarily used by individuals who could not physically get to a polling place on Election Day, such as military personnel, those with medical issues, or individuals who were out of state. Voters needed to provide a reason for requesting an absentee ballot, which was a common requirement in many states during that era. The process was manual, with voters having to request a ballot, receive it by mail, and then return it before Election Day.

During the 1960s and 1970s, as Wyoming’s population grew, and transportation became more accessible, absentee voting expanded. However, the requirement to provide a valid reason for requesting an absentee ballot remained in place for several decades. The state legislature gradually made the process easier over time, particularly in response to requests from military voters and those living in remote areas of the state, where getting to a polling place could require hours of travel.

In the late 20th century, the national conversation around absentee and early voting began to shift. Wyoming adapted to these trends by further simplifying its absentee voting process. By the early 2000s, Wyoming allowed any registered voter to request an absentee ballot without needing to provide a specific reason. This change was significant because it aligned Wyoming with other states that were moving toward more accessible voting practices.

“A Message from Secretary of State Max Maxfield,” from a Wyoming Voter’s Guide flyer, 2010. Box 59, League of Women Voters of Wyoming records, Collection No. 10437, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Today, Wyoming continues to offer a robust absentee voting system. Any registered voter can request an absentee ballot for any reason, making it an attractive option for those who might have difficulty voting in person on Election Day. The process is straightforward:

Voters must request an absentee ballot either by mail, phone, or online.
Once the request is processed, the ballot is mailed to the voter.
The voter can return the ballot by mail, in person at the county clerk’s office, or via designated drop boxes.

Ballots must be received by the county clerk by 7 p.m. on Election Day, and voters can track the status of their absentee ballot to ensure it has been counted.

Table of Contents for “Chapter 9 Absentee Voting”, from the Wyoming Election Code manual, 2012. Box 59, League of Women Voters of Wyoming records, Collection No. 10437, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

During the 2020 election, the Wyoming Secretary of State mailed an absentee ballot request form to every registered voter. As a result, approximately 60% of Wyoming voters cast their ballots by mail, a significant increase from previous years, reflecting the national trend driven by the pandemic.

Wyoming’s vast rural landscape presents unique challenges when it comes to voting. With many voters living in remote areas, the state has long recognized the need for flexible voting options. Absentee voting and mail-in voting can provide a crucial service to these residents, allowing them to participate in elections without facing long travel times to polling locations. Wyoming’s relatively small population also means that election officials can manage and verify absentee ballots with greater ease than in more populous states. While the national debate around mail-in voting continues, Wyoming’s experience shows that with proper safeguards in place, absentee voting can be both secure and accessible.

Among the materials found in the League of Women Voters of Wyoming records at the American Heritage Center is a 2012 Wyoming Election Code manual and various analyses of Wyoming election law from the 1950s and 1960s.

Post contributed by AHC Writer Kathryn Billington.

References

Wyoming Secretary of State. “Absentee Voting Information.” Wyoming Secretary of State’s Office, Accessed 11 Sept. 2024

National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL). “Absentee and Mail Voting Policies in Effect for the 2020 Election.” National Conference of State Legislatures, 20 Oct. 2020.

U.S. Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency. “Rumor Control: Misconceptions and Facts About Election Integrity.” CISA.gov.

Posted in Civic Engagement, Election Process, Uncategorized, Voting Rights, Wyoming history | Tagged Absentee Voting, American Heritage Center, COVID-19 Impact, Election Law, Election Security, League of Women Voters, Mail-in Ballots, Rural Voting, Voter Accessibility, Voter Participation, Voting by Mail, Wyoming Election Code, Wyoming Elections, Wyoming Secretary of State | Leave a comment

Designing the University of Wyoming: The Arts & Sciences Building

Posted on October 14, 2024 by ahcadmin

Welcome back to our series chronicling the University of Wyoming’s architectural legacy and the fascinating stories behind it. Today, we’re diving into the history of the Arts and Sciences Building, a structure that not only shaped the physical landscape of the campus but also pushed the boundaries of university financing.

The story of the Arts and Sciences Building begins with the founding of the University of Wyoming in 1886. The College of Arts and Sciences, originally known as the Collegiate Department, was there from the start, forming the backbone of UW’s liberal arts curriculum.

In those early days, just five professors and two tutors, housed in Old Main, taught over 100 courses. Students could earn bachelor’s degrees in arts, philosophy, letters, or science. Talk about a heavy course load!

Wyoming’s statehood in 1890 ushered in a period of growth. By 1891, the faculty had doubled, student enrollment had tripled, and the Collegiate Department had been renamed the College of Liberal Arts. The stage was set for decades of evolution and expansion.

Postcard of the University of Wyoming campus, ca. 1930. Image ah100813, Photo File: Colleges and Universities – UW – Bldgs – General.

As UW entered the 20th century, the swelling ranks of students made the need for more classrooms painfully clear. Academic departments were scattered across campus, and the dream of bringing departments under one roof began to take shape. But turning that dream into reality would require navigating from boom to bust and pioneering new approaches to university financing.

The 1920s were a time of relative prosperity for the University of Wyoming. Oil royalties from University lands provided a steady, if variable, income stream. The UW Board of Trustees preserved these royalties in the University Permanent Land Fund, using only the income for operating expenses.

University of Wyoming faculty members when University of Wyoming President Arthur Crane arrived in 1922. Image ah300616, Ludwig & Svenson Studio Photographs, Coll. No. 167.

But as plans for a new liberal arts building began to solidify, the nation plunged into the Great Depression. This economic crisis would play a crucial role in shaping the building’s funding and construction, pushing the University to explore innovative – and controversial – financing options.

On December 7, 1933, UW President Arthur Crane presented a bold plan to the Board of Trustees. In a meeting attended by Governor Leslie Miller, Crane proposed seeking federal funds for campus construction projects, similar to those obtained by universities in Montana, Utah, and Minnesota.

At the top of Crane’s wish list was a liberal arts building with an auditorium. His proposal was thorough, even including estimates of how many local unemployed workers could find relief through the construction project. The estimated price tag was $300,000 (about $7,264,523.08 in today’s dollars). The financing plan was innovative: 30% would come as a grant from the United States or a federal agency, while the remainder would be secured by pledging income from University land funds.

The Board’s decision was far from unanimous. The motion to approve Crane’s plan passed by a narrow margin: 5 ayes, 3 noes, and 1 absent. This split vote underscores the controversial nature of the proposal, even among the University’s leadership.

Board of Trustees in 1930. President Crane is standing in the middle, wearing a light colored suit. Image ah301834, Ludwig & Svenson Studio Photographs, Coll. No. 167.

The next step was securing legislative approval, which came through House Bill 92. The bill passed the house by a vote of 43-15 and squeaked through the Senate 14-12 before being signed into law by Governor Miller on December 20, 1933.

With legislative approval secured, UW was ready to enter uncharted financial waters. The Public Works Administration (PWA) agreed to provide an outright grant of more than $80,000, but there was a catch: the University needed to provide security for a loan of $228,000 through the sale of University bonds.

This was unprecedented. Never before had the University of Wyoming issued bonds to fund a construction project. A similar plan had been rejected by the legislature just two years earlier. The proposal raised a flurry of questions:

Would these bonds constitute a general state debt, requiring voter approval as per the constitution?

How would University bonds be rated and sold in the financial markets?

Could these bonds be considered a legal investment for state-held funds, like bonds from Wyoming cities, counties, and school districts?

If the answer to the last question was yes, it opened up an intriguing possibility: the bonds could be purchased by the state treasurer, with the interest paid by the University into its own fund for its own use. It was a bold, innovative approach to financing in higher education.

To settle these questions, a lawsuit was brought to determine the constitutionality of the plan. In June 1934, the Wyoming Supreme Court ruled in favor of the University on all counts, paving the way for this groundbreaking financial maneuver.

However, the ruling wasn’t without its critics. Justice Fred H. Blume, while supporting the decision, couldn’t resist sharing some rather flowery philosophical musings on the matter. In a statement that reads more like Victorian literature than a legal opinion, Justice Blume waxed poetic:

Is there no end? Many of us were not brought up in the bosom of luxury, nor did we sleep in marble halls. The village schools and their humble surroundings and the university campus graced with edifices hoary with age seemed to us to satisfy the longings for learning.

Warming to his theme, Justice Blume continued with a dire warning from history:

We have heard of the existence in the past of cities, once humming with the glad refrain of thousands of happy human beings, lying now desolate with their stately baths, their roomy porticoes, their sacred shrines in ruins, because no space, no corner, no nook had become exempt from the invasion of public burdens. Do ruins tell tales merely to be scorned?

Despite these poetic cautions, progress marched on. The innovative bond plan was put into effect. All of the bonds were purchased by the state treasurer using money from the University Permanent Land Fund—a solution as elegant as it was unprecedented.

With funding secured, the project could finally break ground. In the summer of 1934, Cheyenne architect William Dubois was selected to design the building. The chosen location was the site of the Little Theatre, built as a gymnasium and armory in 1903. That fall, the old gym and theatre were demolished to make way for the future.

A student production of J.M. Barrie’s play, *Dear Brutus* in UW’s Little Theatre in 1934 not long before the theater was demolished. Image ah302437, Ludwig & Svenson Studio Photographs, Coll. No. 167.

On January 26, 1935, the university accepted a bid from F.J. Kirchof Construction of Denver. Ground was broken on February 5, and the cornerstone was laid in a ceremony on November 4.

One of the most fascinating aspects of the construction was the level of student involvement. UW students contributed significantly to the project, cutting stones from a quarry northeast of Laramie and digging the sewer mains. This hands-on approach not only aided the construction but also fostered a sense of ownership among the student body.

Students build concrete curb and gutter on campus, 1933. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration provided jobs for unemployed students during the Depression, foreshadowing their role in constructing the Liberal Arts building. Image ah302416, Ludwig & Svenson Studio Photographs, Coll. No. 167.

By late May 1936, despite some challenges with cost overruns, the building stood ready for action. The Honors Assembly on May 26 christened the new auditorium, followed by a student production of George Bernard Shaw’s Caesar and Cleopatra, baccalaureate services, and finally, commencement on June 8.

Just completed in 1936. Note snow on the ground. Must be May in Laramie. Image ah003872, Ludwig & Svenson Studio Photographs, Coll. No. 167.

Enjoying the new, spacious auditorium after the building opened in 1936. Image ah302636, Ludwig & Svenson Studio Photographs, Coll. No. 167.

The new facility quickly became a hub not just for the university, but for the wider community. It offered a venue for outside groups to hold conferences, expanding UW’s role as a center for gathering and learning.

The enjoyment of the new facility extended beyond the UW community. The new addition to campus offered opportunities for outside groups to hold conferences. Here is a meeting of the Wyoming State Federation of Labor in June 1936. It looks like some folks on the left and right were “photoshopped” into the image. Image ah302635, Ludwig & Svenson Studio Photographs, Coll. No. 167.

In 1956, the structure was renamed the Arts and Sciences Building, reflecting the college’s new name. This change marked the beginning of a period of significant growth. The oil boom of the 1960s funded both intellectual and physical expansion. New departments sprouted up: Social Work (1970), Computer Science (1971), Criminal Justice (1973), and Gender and Women’s Studies (1977), among others.

Eight decades later, the Arts and Sciences Building remains a hub of activity on UW’s campus. Its halls, once filled with the echoes of New Deal optimism, now resonate with the voices of modern academia. While the building has adapted to changing times, it stands as a tangible link to UW’s Depression-era ingenuity—a reminder of how far the university has come, and the innovative spirit that helped it get there.

See How the Campus Has Evolved Since the 1930s

The Arts & Sciences Building’s Depression-era construction was just one chapter in UW’s ongoing transformation. Curious about how other campus landmarks have changed since those New Deal days? Our virtual exhibit “Keeping History Alive: 136 Years of Progress” pairs historic photos from our collections with current campus shots to show how university life has evolved since 1887. You’ll see familiar buildings through the decades and get a real sense of how much—and how little—has changed over the years. For additional perspectives on campus development and architecture, explore our exhibit “University of Wyoming: A Brief History of Campus.”

Posted in Uncategorized, University Architecture, University of Wyoming history | Tagged 1930s architecture, Campus expansion, College of Arts & Sciences, Depression-era construction, Liberal arts education, New Deal projects, PWA funding, Student Involvement, University Archives, University bonds, University of Wyoming, William Dubois (architect) | Leave a comment

Bonds of Life and Limb: Women of the Union Pacific

Posted on October 7, 2024 by ahcadmin

In the rugged terrain of Wyoming, the railroad carves its path like a long river of steel, shaping the history and spirit of the place. Yet, the stories of those who spend their lives on the rails, laboring with grit, metal, and determination, often remain in the shadows. The American Heritage Center’s “Life Between the Rails” oral history project aims to change this by documenting, preserving, and sharing the experiences of Union Pacific employees—particularly those whose voices are less often heard—women and individuals from underrepresented communities.

Locomotive hostler Shirley Tunge at work in Nebraska’s North Platte yard, ca. 1975. Box 266, Union Pacific Historical Society collection, Coll. No. 10713.

On New Tracks: Women Enter the Rail Workforce

Many of the “Life Between the Rails” interviewees began their careers in the 1970s, a time of upheaval and opportunity for the Union Pacific Railroad. It was during this period that the company began its equal opportunity initiatives, opening doors for women to step into roles previously reserved for men – such as switchmen, brakemen, conductors, and engineers.

Women railroad workers in Cheyenne, ca. 1992. Those pictured include four participants of the Life Between the Rails project. Photo taken by Paul Chesley. A similar photo taken by Chesley appeared in the book *America: Then & Now: Great Old Photographs of America’s Life and Times-And How Those Same Scenes Look Today* (1992) by David Cohen. In the book, Cohen placed the 1992 Cheyenne group photo alongside a comparable image of female railroad workers from the Cheyenne rail yard in 1918. Photo courtesy of Celeste Malloy.

The women who embraced these roles faced the same tough conditions as their male counterparts – intense physical labor, biting winds, and long shifts – but also bore burdens uniquely their own. Celeste Malloy and Kris Tomanek joined the UP in the mid-1970s and early in their careers were employed as switchmen in the Cheyenne rail yard. At certain times their pregnancies were a secret hidden beneath their coveralls. No policy barred them from working, but one unrelenting manager made his stance clear. As Celeste recalls, “We had one manager that absolutely did not want pregnant women out here. He didn’t want women out here at all… ‘You’re pregnant, you’re out.’ I couldn’t afford to go home and live on unemployment.”

Celeste Malloy, July 9, 2024. “Life Between the Rails” oral history project, Coll. No. 12918.

In this audio clip, Celeste elaborates on the issue:

For women like Nancy Bath, the challenges went beyond physical labor. Hired in 1977 as a switchman in Laramie, Nancy balanced her duties on her family ranch with late shifts in the Union Pacific train yard. But it wasn’t just the grueling hours that weighed on her – it was the reluctance of some male coworkers to offer the guidance she needed to master her tasks. “You have to remember,” Nancy notes, “this was a changing time period. Women were coming into the workforce in male-dominated fields. That did not sit well with some people. I always felt if you did your job then they treated you better, but it was a different time.”

Nancy Bath (third from left) shown in a *Laramie Boomerang* photo dating to when the Union Pacific Railroad moved switching operations from Laramie to Cheyenne in 1986. The clipping was donated to the AHC by Nancy Bath. Scott Steere (far left) was also interviewed for “Life Between the Rails.”

Even now, the echoes of that time follow Nancy in dreams – dreams of being lost, of never quite reaching where she needs to go:

Tried and Tested Bonds

Though the challenges were many, those who worked the rails forged bonds as strong as the iron tracks beneath them. “The best thing about it [railroad work] was the camaraderie,” said Kris Tomanek. “The friends I still have from working with them… it’s like a club. They’re all in the same club. You know what it’s like to work for the railroad. You know what it’s like to be out in the middle of nowhere and see the northern lights.”

Kris Tomanek, May 22, 2024. “Life Between the Rails” oral history project, Coll. No. 12918.

There is a certain magic in the loneliness of the rail line, a sense that the vastness of the land binds those who work upon it. In the words of interviewee Teresa Straub, “All of the experiences on the railroad are unique, I think. The whole atmosphere, it’s just something that’s in your blood.”

Teresa Straub, May 21, 2024. “Life Between the Rails” oral history project, Coll. No. 12918.

As Kris Tomanek said, “You trust these people with your life and limb, literally.” In the following audio clip, Kris tells the story of the time her life was saved by a coworker who pulled her out of the path of a silently rolling freight car, in the middle of winter night in the Cheyenne rail yard.

Danny Roeseler, another railroad veteran, was hired by the UP in 1974 and worked as a switchman, conductor, and engineer. Danny shared several stories of close calls – her life spared more than once by quick-thinking coworkers.

Danny Roeseler, July 10, 2024. “Life Between the Rails” oral history project, Coll. No. 12918.

On one occasion, a brake failure sent Danny’s runaway train cars barreling toward disaster. Feeling she had no other choice, she saved herself by jumping off the engine and into a snowdrift. In another near miss, it was a coworker who helped her avoid grievous injury. Trust, it seems, is the secret currency of the railroad, passed between hand without words. In this audio clip, Danny remembers the incidents:

Roberta Winkler, who had a 34-year career, with UP, reflected, “I think the thing I miss the most is my railroad family – I have not felt anything like that on any other job.” That family-like bond extended beyond just day-to-day operations. After traumatic incidents, the railroad community was there, with coworkers offering support and even counseling.

Rising to the Challenge: Grit and Grace on the Rails

For many women, overcoming the expectations of male coworkers was as much a part of the job as hauling freight. Diana Archuleta, who joined the Union Pacific in 1977, faced these challenges head-on. “It was pretty tough,” she admits, but it wasn’t without its bright spots. While Diana worked as the conductor on a soda ash train, a senior brakeman recognized her dedication and took her under his wing: “You know, I’ll take care of you kid. I’ll help you out. We’ll get through this.” In time, even the grumpiest of coworkers came around, and Diana learned that persistence and patience could eventually win over the staunchest opposition.

Diana Archuleta pictured in a green vest at a 2013 “Capitol for the Day” event at the Green River Depot. Photo courtesy Union Pacific online newsletter *InsideTrack*.

Hear more of Diana’s story in this clip:

Building Confidence and Lifelong Friendships

The camaraderie found on the railroad was something that set is apart as a workplace. As Kris Tomanek recalls, working with an all-female crew was a rare but rewarding experience: “We were very responsible and worked hard… in those situations it was warm and fuzzy because we were all women and we thought this is pretty cool.”

Teresa Straub was hired by the Union Pacific in 1975 and worked as a switchman, brakeman, conductor, and engineer. Teresa described how a good crew working together efficiently could make even the toughest jobs enjoyable. “If you had a switch crew that worked well together it was fun. Just fun.” Teresa supported her coworkers in many ways, even soothing their injuries with her skills as a massage therapist.

For these women the railroad was more than a job – it was a forge in which their confidence and sense of self were empowered. As Celeste Malloy reflects on her time with the UP, “I think it gave me a lot more confidence knowing that I could do these different jobs… knowing that I could learn carpenter helper, I could learn switchman, I could learn engineer. I think it gave me confidence overall.”

The railroad became not just a workplace, but a space where women discovered their strength, where they learned to trust their bodies, their minds, and one another. The friendships and support systems they created still ripple outward, influencing the lives of others long after the work is done.

Interviewee Sally Meeker’s mother, Myrtle Mason Forney, handing up train orders to a passing train crew at Sherman Station in Wyoming, circa 1944. As a young woman, Myrtle worked as a telegrapher and station operator for the UP during World War II. Myrtle’s story illustrates that women have been important contributors to railroad operations for generations. “Life Between the Rails” oral history project, Coll. No. 12918.

With gratitude to the Union Pacific Foundation for funding this important project, and to the participants who generously shared their memories, we ensure that the stories of these remarkable women will endure – a testament to those who lived, worked, and found their place in the long, winding history of the railroad.

To explore more railroad history, visit the American Heritage Center’s virtual exhibits The Art of the Railroad and Hell on Wheels: Union Pacific in Wyoming. The first examines the cultural impact and enduring mythology of railroads, while the second explores the rough boom towns that sprang up during the construction of the very lines these pioneering women would later work and maintain.

Post contributed by Tana Libolt, “Life Between the Rails” Project Assistant.

Posted in oral histories, Railroad History, Uncategorized, Union Pacific Railroad, Women in the workforce, women's history | Tagged 1970s, Equal opportunity, Gender equality, Life Between the Rails project, Personal stories, Railroad jobs, Women railroaders, Workplace camaraderie, Workplace challenges, Wyoming | Leave a comment

Joker – The Clown Prince of Crime

Posted on September 30, 2024 by ahcadmin

Joker is one of the most recognizable and iconic fictional characters in pop culture. The character’s origin dates to the publication of DC Comics Batman #1 in the spring of 1940. Joker was introduced as a criminal mastermind and Batman’s archnemesis. As a comic book character, Joker was a psychopath with a sadistic sense of humor, but this portrayal evolved, in part due to regulations by the Comics Code Authority which did not approve of sadism or gory violence. By the 1950s, Joker had become a goofy, thieving prankster.

Cesar Romero was the first actor to bring the character to life on screen in the 1960s television show Batman. Romero was nearly sixty and had a long career in film and television before William Dozier cast him as Joker.

Cesar Romero in costume as Joker. Box 24, William Dozier papers, Collection No. 6851, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Romero spent an hour a day in the makeup chair, to adopt the character’s clown white face with a slash of red for a mouth. The makeup artists had a challenge. Romero refused to shave off his trademark moustache, so they simply applied extra layers of white makeup. Romero loved playing the Joker, saying “Once you get into that costume and get the wig and makeup on, you change completely. It was a ball to whoop it up, laugh, scream. It was a hammy part.” Romero’s Joker had a hysterical cackle which was inspired by Cesar Romero’s actual laugh. The laugh went on to become one of the defining characteristics of generations of future Jokers in television, movies, cartoons, and video games.

Romero’s Joker first appeared in the 5^th episode of the Batman television show, titled “The Joker Is Wild.” The script for that episode was written by Robert Dozier, son of Batman producer William Dozier.

Page of the revised script for the *Batman* episode “The Joker Is Wild,” December 13, 1965. Box 37, William Dozier papers, Collection No. 6851, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

The storyline of “The Joker Is Wild” begins with Joker literally sprung from the Gotham State Penitentiary – by a giant spring.

Before long, Batman and Robin are summoned by Gotham City Police Commissioner Gordon. The superhero duo leaves behind a wholesome afternoon snack of milk and cookies to rush out to the Batmobile in pursuit of the evildoer Joker. After a series Joker’s dastardly deeds, madcap pranks and dustups between the dynamic duo and the bad guys, Joker threatens to unmask Batman and Robin. The program ended on a cliffhanger. Viewers tuned in the next night to see the follow-up episode – “Batman is Riled.” Would Batman and Robin be unmasked? Or would justice prevail? In the end, there was more of Joker’s trickery, but Batman and Robin outsmart him and capture Joker and Queenie, one of his henchmen.

Cesar Romero in costume as Joker and Nancy Kovack as Queenie. Box 24, William Dozier papers, Collection No. 6851, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Romero, as Joker, appeared in 20 episodes of the Batman TV show from 1966 to 1968. Among the most memorable Batman episodes of that era is “Surf’s Up! Joker’s Under!” In it, Joker and Batman face off riding long boards in a surfing competition. That episode captures the essence of Romero’s Joker as a campy, wacky villain.

Romero also appeared as Joker in the 1966 movie Batman. In the film, he teamed up with Penguin, Riddler and Catwoman to form the United Underworld. At their United Underworld headquarters, the villains were prone to squabbling and Joker was not above playing practical jokes on his fellow evildoers, saying “a joke a day keeps the gloom away.”

The plot of the movie has Batman and Robin facing off against the United Underworld. The Joker dehydrates the ambassadors to the United World Organization’s Security Council and he and the rest of the villains abscond with the powdered ambassadors. It is only when Batman and Robin recover and rehydrate the ambassadors that the world is saved from the threat of the Joker and the other villains.

Batman and Robin, surrounded by their archenemies from 20^th Century Fox’s feature film *Batman*. From the left, Penguin, Joker, Riddler and Catwoman attack the Dynamic Duo. Box 24, William Dozier papers, Collection No. 6851, American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming.

Cesar Romero was the first of more than half a dozen actors to play Joker. Among the notable are Jack Nicholson as Joker in Tim Burton’s 1989 film Batman. Mark Hamill also took a turn at Joker, voicing him in video games and the 2016 animated feature Batman: The Killing Joke.

Other more recent portrayals of Joker include Heath Ledger as Joker in the 2008 superhero film The Dark Knight. Ledger’s Joker was psychopathic and sadistic, setting the stage for the 2019 film Joker, in which Joaquin Phoenix portrayed Joker as a violent, mentally unbalanced, failed circus clown. Taking the character of Joker to a very dark place, the 2019 Joker was the first live action film from the Batman series to receive an R-rating. It was also the first film to explore Joker’s origins in depth.

In the upcoming 2024 sequel, Joker: Folie á Deux, filmgoers can expect to see a reprise of Joaquin Phoenix as Joker. Phoenix’s Joker is one of the most twisted villains on the big screen. Joker has exceeded even his 1940s darker comic book roots and is a far cry from the campy Joker of the 1966-1968 Batman television show, where he was first called the “clown prince of crime.”

To learn more of Joker’s history, see drafts of the scripts for the 1960s Batman television show, including the episodes titled “The Joker Is Wild” and “Surf’s Up! Joker’s Under!” in the William Dozier papers at the American Heritage Center.

Post contributed by AHC Writer Kathryn Billington.

Posted in Actors, Adaptations, Batman Franchise, Comic Book Villains, Hollywood history, Pop Culture, Pop Culture Icons, television history, Uncategorized | Tagged Batman, Batman movie (1966), Batman TV series (1966-1968), Cesar Romero, DC Comics, Joker, Joker: Folie á Deux, Robert Dozier, United Underworld, William Dozier | Leave a comment

Witness to a Watershed: A Journalist’s Chronicle of 1948 Palestine

Posted on September 23, 2024 by ahcadmin

In the tumultuous years following World War II, Palestine found itself at a critical juncture. The British Mandate was coming to an end, and tensions between Jewish and Arab communities had escalated into open conflict following the United Nations’ vote for partition in November 1947. As British forces prepared to withdraw, both sides engaged in increasingly violent clashes, each seeking to secure territory and strategic positions. It was in this volatile and complex environment that American journalist Robert Conway of The New York Daily News found himself at the epicenter of the escalating conflict.

The situation was rapidly deteriorating into a full-scale war, which would culminate in the declaration of the State of Israel in May 1948 and the subsequent Arab-Israeli War. Conway’s papers, now housed at the American Heritage Center, offer a window into this pivotal period in Middle Eastern history. These documents, including press conference transcripts, reports, photographs, and Conway’s own observations, provide a multifaceted view of the tensions in the region during the late 1940s – tensions that continue to resonate in today’s headlines.

Robert Conway in Palestine, 1948. Box 28, folder 3, Robert Conway papers, Coll. No. 6062.

A Journalist’s Perspective on Rising Tensions

Conway’s papers reveal the intricate web of conflicts and security measures that characterized the situation in Palestine in early 1948. His collection includes striking photographs and detailed reports that bring the era to life.

One image shows British guards checking identities in front of the Public Information Office. The caption reads: “British Guards check identities in front of Public Information Office – sandbag sentry boxes and barbed wire everywhere.” This visual evidence corroborates Conway’s reports of the heightened security measures and tension in the area.

Box 28, folder 1, Robert Conway papers, Coll. No. 6062.

Another photograph depicts Jewish buses covered with armor plating. The caption explains: “Jewish buses covered with armor plate against Arab attacks – slits in windows are for machine guns.” This stark image illustrates the dangers of everyday life during this period and the measures taken for protection, foreshadowing the ongoing security concerns in the region.

Box 28, folder 2, Robert Conway papers, Coll. No. 6062.

A woman soldier of the Haganah, the main Zionist paramilitary organization in British-mandated Palestine on an armored bus in 1948. Note the pistol in her hand. This image captures the reality of everyday militarization during the conflict. The Haganah later formed the core of the Israel Defense Forces. Box 28, folder 2, Robert Conway papers, Coll. No. 6062.

Documenting Daily Life and Conflict

Conway’s reporting went beyond major events, capturing the daily tensions and struggles of life in a conflict zone. A document from the Public Information Office dated April 8, 1948, provides a stark summary of events over a 20-hour period, including:

06.50 hrs. Rural T.A.C. Abrạs′’Abdủl Salem Naji was found unconscious at his post at the entrance to the Slabit Billet in the Police compound. His rifle and 20 rounds of ammunition were missing.

The same document includes a chilling tally of casualties reported to the police over a period of about four months, with 851 Jews and 960 Arabs dead, and 1757 Jews and 1967 Arabs injured. These figures underscore the human cost of the conflict that Conway was witnessing and reporting on.

One particularly illustrative example comes from Conway’s recollection of an incident at the Jaffa Gate. He writes:

I remember on one occasion I was standing outside the Jaffa Gate, which the Jews bombed so often on partition. Inside these walls of Old Jerusalem, some 34,000 arabs [sic] laid siege to 1,500 Jews. The Jews were trying to blow up as many arabs [sic] as possible, to break the siege. And as I stood there, a truck came along. The driver looked like and Arab and spoke Arabic. He was waved through. But, just as he was about to pass the Arab roadblock, they got suspicious. He was stopped and questioned. He produced Arab identification cards. He stood on his dignity, like an Arab. Again he was about to pass along, when again he was questioned — this time by a Syrian who’d caught a glimpse of something in the man’s shoe. They made him take his shoe off — and found a Jewish Haganah credential card.

Box 28, folder 4, Robert Conway papers, Coll. No. 6062.

This account vividly captures the tension and suspicion that permeated everyday interactions, as well as the high stakes of mistaken identity in the conflict zone.

The Challenges of Reporting in a Conflict Zone

Conway’s papers also offer insights into the difficulties journalists faced in verifying information amidst conflicting narratives. Minutes from a press conference held at the Jewish Agency’s Press and Public Relations Office on April 4, 1948, reveal discussions about various reports and their accuracy. The document states:

There seems to be a whispering campaign about Jewish attempts to destroy or damage Christian or Moslem Holy Places in the Old City. I have been unable to get confirmation of any such rumours.

This highlights the challenges reporters like Conway faced in distinguishing fact from rumor and propaganda, a challenge that persists for journalists in the region today.

Conway captioned this photo: “*Palestine Post* (newspaper) building day after explosion still smoking… Building opposite ruined and windows broken for blocks. Jerusalem 1948 Feb.” Three people were killed and thirty were injured.
Box 28, folder 3, Robert Conway papers, Coll. No. 6062.

Historical Context and Contemporary Relevance

Conway’s documentation of events in late 1940s Palestine provides valuable historical context for understanding the region’s ongoing complexities. The issues of territory, security, and identity that Conway reported on remain central to discussions about the area today.

Some of the security measures Conway photographed, such as armored vehicles and checkpoints, have modern counterparts. His descriptions of siege conditions and the challenges of urban conflict continue to be relevant in contemporary reporting on the region.

Conway’s account of the truck driver incident at the Jaffa Gate highlights the long-standing difficulty of distinguishing between combatants and civilians in this conflict zone – a challenge that persists in many modern conflicts.

It’s important to note, however, that the current situation differs significantly from what Conway witnessed. The political landscape has transformed, new actors have emerged, and the nature of the conflict has evolved considerably over the past 75 years.

Studying Conway’s papers offers researchers and historians insight into the roots of ongoing regional tensions, while also illustrating how much has changed. This historical perspective can enrich our understanding of current events, though it should not be used to draw direct parallels without careful consideration of the many intervening factors.

Aftermath of the explosion in Jaffa, January 10, 1948. This photo captures the damaged Sarai (government building) and offices of the Arab National Committee. Moments before, the body of an Arab woman was removed from the scene. Conway noted that local Arabs prevented photography of the body’s removal, highlighting the tensions surrounding media coverage of the conflict. Box 28, folder 8, Robert Conway papers, Coll. No. 6062.

Reflecting on Conway’s Reporting

Conway’s work provides valuable insights into how international events were presented to American readers in the late 1940s. By studying these primary sources alongside other historical documents, researchers can gain a more nuanced understanding of this critical period in Middle Eastern history and its long-term regional implications.

Conway’s papers offer important historical context for the complex geopolitical landscape of the Middle East. They underscore the value of examining primary sources to better comprehend the multifaceted nature of long-standing regional tensions.

While historical documents like Conway’s reporting cannot explain current events in their entirety, they do provide a foundation for understanding the deep-rooted and complex nature of ongoing conflicts in the region.

Post contributed by AHC Archivist Leslie Waggener.

Posted in Journalism, Middle East Studies, Uncategorized, War correspondents | Tagged Arab-Israeli Conflict, British Mandate, Conflict Reporting, Haganah, Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, Jerusalem 1940s, Middle East History, New York Daily News, Palestine 1948, Robert Conway, War Journalism, World War II Aftermath | Leave a comment

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Historical Context and Contemporary Relevance

Reflecting on Conway’s Reporting

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